Jump to content

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

Coordinates: 33°N 66°E / 33°N 66°E / 33; 66
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Republic of Afghanistan (disambiguation).

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
  • جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان (Dari)
  • Jumhūrī-yi Islāmī-yi Afğānistān
  • د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت (Pashto)
  • Da Afġānistān Islāmī Jumhoryat
2004–2021
Flag of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Flag
(2013–2021)
Emblem (2013–2021) of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Emblem
(2013–2021)
Motto: لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله
"Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh"
"There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah." (Shahada)
Anthem: 
Qal’a-ye Islām, qalb-e Āsiyā
قلعه اسلام قلب اسیا
("Fortress of Islam, Heart of Asia")
(2004–2006)
Sūrud-e-Millī
سرود ملی
("National Anthem")
(2006–2021)
Location of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Capital
and largest city
Kabul
33°N 66°E / 33°N 66°E / 33; 66
Official languages
Ethnic groups
Religion
Demonym(s)Afghan[a][4][5]
GovernmentUnitary presidential Islamic republic
President 
• 2004–2014
Hamid Karzai
• 2014–2021
Ashraf Ghani
Chief Executive 
• 2014–2020
Abdullah Abdullah
Vice President[b] 
• 2004–2009
Ahmad Zia Massoud
• 2004–2014
Karim Khalili
• 2009–2014
Mohammed Fahim
• 2014[c]
Yunus Qanuni
• 2014–2020
Abdul Rashid Dostum
• 2014–2021
Sarwar Danish
• 2020–2021
Amrullah Saleh
LegislatureNational Assembly
• Upper house
House of Elders
• Lower house
House of the People
Historical eraWar on Terror
7 October 2001
26 January 2004
29 February 2020
15 August 2021
Area
• Water (%)
negligible
2020[6]652,864 km2 (252,072 sq mi)
Population
• 2020[7]
31,390,200
• Density
48.08/km2 (124.5/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2021 estimate
• Total
$83 billion[8]
HDI (2019)0.511
low
CurrencyAfghani (افغانی) (AFN)
Time zoneUTC+4:30 Solar Calendar (D†)
Drives onright
Calling code+93
Internet TLD.af
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was a presidential republic in Afghanistan from 2004 to 2021. The state was established to replace the Afghan interim (2001–2002) and transitional (2002–2004) administrations, which were formed after the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan that had toppled the partially recognized Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. However, on 15 August 2021, the country was recaptured by the Taliban, which marked the end of the 2001–2021 war, the longest war in US history.[9] This led to the overthrow of the Islamic Republic, led by President Ashraf Ghani, and the reinstatement of the Islamic Emirate under the control of the Taliban. While the United Nations still recognizes the Islamic Republic as the legitimate government of Afghanistan, this toppled regime controls no portion of the country today, nor does it operate in exile; it effectively no longer exists. The Islamic Emirate is the de facto ruling government. The US–Taliban deal, signed on 29 February 2020 in Qatar, was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF).[10] Following the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting the Taliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.[11]

Following the September 11 attacks, the United States and several allies invaded Afghanistan, overthrowing the Taliban's first government (which had limited recognition) in support of the opposition Northern Alliance. Afterwards, a transitional government was formed under the leadership of Hamid Karzai. After the 2003 loya jirga, a unitary presidential Islamic republic was proclaimed under a new constitution, and Karzai was elected for a full term as president. Meanwhile, the US-led international coalition helped maintain internal security, gradually transferring the burden of defense to the Afghan Armed Forces after 2013–14.

However, Taliban forces held control of various areas of the country and the civil war continued. The Taliban regrouped as an insurgency with the alleged support of Pakistan, and escalated attacks on Afghan and coalition forces after 2006–07. This perpetuated Afghanistan's problematic human rights and women's rights records, with numerous abuses committed by both sides, such as the killing of civilians, kidnapping, and torture. Due to the government's extensive reliance on American military and economic aid, some classed the nation as an American client state, and it gradually lost control of the rural countryside after the conclusion of Operation Enduring Freedom.[12]

Following the withdrawal of NATO troops in 2021, the Taliban launched a massive military offensive in May 2021, allowing them to take control of the country over the following three and a half months. The Afghan National Army rapidly disintegrated. The institutions of the republic effectively collapsed on 15 August 2021, when the Taliban forces entered Kabul and Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled the country. Soon after, former first vice president Amrullah Saleh declared himself the caretaker president of Afghanistan and announced the republican resistance against the Taliban; however, on 6 September 2021, Saleh also fled to Tajikistan.[13][14][15][16][17]

History

Main article: History of Afghanistan
Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), Taliban insurgency, and Reconstruction in Afghanistan

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security.[18][19] By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute famine at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest infant and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry,[20][21][22] and infrastructure was in ruins.[23] Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.[24][25]

Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process.[26][27] The Taliban began an insurgency to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of reliance on subsistence agriculture, a lack of foreign investment, government corruption, and the Taliban insurgency.[28][29] Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country,[30] and the Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture in Reconstruction in Afghanistan. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five million Afghans were repatriated.[31] The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[32] dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.[33]

In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.[34][35][36][37][38] On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.[39][40] Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces[41] and continue their fight against the Taliban.[42] It was estimated in 2015 that "about 147,000 people have been killed in the Afghanistan war since 2001. More than 38,000 of those killed have been civilians."[43] A report titled Body Count concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[44][45][46]

Collapse

2021 Taliban resurgence

Further information: 2021 Taliban offensive

On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May.[47] Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government, quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.[48][49] In June 2021, a US intelligence report predicted that the Afghan government would likely collapse within six months after NATO completed its withdrawal from the country.[50] The report proved overly optimistic: by the second week of August, most Afghan provincial capitals had fallen into the hands of the Taliban and the Afghan National Army was in complete disarray, losing ground on all fronts. The falls of Mazar-i-Sharif and Jalalabad on 14 and 15 August respectively removed any possibility for the Afghan government to halt Taliban advance.[51]

Fall of Kabul

Further information: Fall of Kabul (2021)

On 15 August 2021, Taliban forces entered the capital city of Kabul, meeting only limited resistance.[52] In the afternoon, it was reported that Afghan President Ashraf Ghani had left the country, fleeing into either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan; Chairman of the House of the People Mir Rahman Rahmani was also reported to have fled into Pakistan.[53] Following Ghani's escape, the remaining loyalist forces abandoned their posts and the Afghan Armed Forces de facto ceased to exist.[54]

On the evening of 15 August, the Taliban occupied the Arg, lowered the Afghan republican flag and raised their own flag over the palace. On 19 August 2021 the Taliban proclaimed the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.[55]

On 17 August 2021, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami, met with both Hamid Karzai, former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, Chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, seeking to form a government.[56][57] President Ghani, having settled in the United Arab Emirates, said that he supported such negotiations.[58][59]

National Resistance Front

Further information: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan and National Resistance Front of Afghanistan
Effective control of territory in Afghanistan by 15 August 2021

On 17 August, the former First Vice President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Amrullah Saleh, tweeted that he had remained in the country and had assumed the role of Caretaker President in the absence of Ghani citing the Afghan Constitution as his basis.[13] Saleh's government includes Bismillah Khan Mohammadi as Minister of Defense and Ahmad Massoud, son of Ahmad Shah Massoud and leader of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan. It was based in the Panjshir Valley, and used the city of Bazarak as a temporary capital, as it was one of the few areas of Afghanistan that was still under control of the Islamic Republic.[60][61] On 6 September, after heavy fighting resulting in high losses on both sides, the Taliban claimed to have captured all of Panjshir, with the Taliban flag being hoisted at the governor's office in Bazarak.[62] The remaining NRF troops had reportedly retreated into the mountains,[63][64] while Saleh and Massoud fled to Tajikistan.[65][66]

Additional resistance

Further information: Balkhab uprising

As of 2022, scattered fighting between opposition groups and the Taliban continue to occur. On 13 March 2022, the Afghanistan Freedom Front, an ethnically diverse anti-Taliban military group formed,[67] and has since conducted several attacks on the Taliban,[68] including a missile attack on Bagram Airfield, in which six Taliban soldiers were killed and two were wounded.[69]

In June 2022, an uprising began in the Balkhab District of the Sar-e Pol Province. Hazara rebel Mehdi Mujahid, the Taliban-appointed head of intelligence of the Bamyan Province had been expelled from the position after criticizing the closure of girls' schools and continued demanding for equality to Hazaras and other Shia Muslims.[70] He left the Taliban, declaring war on them, and began to gather rebels.[71] Supported by the NRF[72] and several political parties,[72][73] the rebels seized Balkhab and controlled the entire district by 13 June 2022.[74] On 23 June 2022, the Taliban began fighting to take back the district.[72] The uprising ended when the Taliban recaptured Balkhab and Mujahid was killed.[75]

On the one year anniversary of the Fall of Kabul, the NRF conducted various hit-and-run attacks on Taliban militants.[76] Several other groups, such as the Ahmad Khan Samangani Front[77] and the Afghanistan Islamic National & Liberation Movement have also conducted attacks against the Taliban.[78]

Governance

Main articles: Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was an Islamic republic with its government consisting of three branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial. The head of state and government was the President of Afghanistan. The National Assembly was the legislature, a bicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders. The Supreme Court was led by Chief Justice Said Yusuf Halem, the former Deputy Minister of Justice for Legal Affairs.[79]

The Arg (the presidential palace) in Kabul

According to Transparency International, Afghanistan remained one of the most corrupt countries.[80] A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime revealed that bribery consumed an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation.[81] Corruption was endemic even in the upper echelons of governance: in August 2010 it was revealed that the leadership of the New Kabul Bank and a handful of political elites, including cabinet ministers, had embezzled close to $1 billion through fraudulent loan schemes.[82][83]

On 17 May 2020, President Ashraf Ghani reached a power-sharing deal with his rival from presidential elections, Abdullah Abdullah, about who would manage the respected key ministries. The agreement ended months-long political deadlock in the country. It was agreed that while Ghani will lead Afghanistan as the president, Abdullah would oversee the peace process with the Taliban.[84][85]

Reports emerged on 25 August that a 12-member council will be formed to govern Afghanistan. Reportedly 7 members were already agreed upon: Hekmatyar, Karzai, Abdullah, Abdul Ghani Baradar, Mohammad Yaqoob, Khalil-ur-Rehman Haqqani, and Hanif Atmar.[86]

Elections and parties

Main articles: Elections in Afghanistan and List of political parties in Afghanistan
US President Donald Trump with president of Afghanistan Ashraf Ghani in 2017

Under the 2004 constitution, both presidential and parliamentary elections were to be held every five years. However, due to the disputed 2014 presidential election, the scheduled 2015 parliamentary elections were delayed until 2018.[87] Presidential elections used the two-round system; if no candidate received a majority of the vote in the first round, a second round would be held featuring the top two candidates. Parliamentary elections had only one round and were based on the single non-transferable vote system, which allows some candidates to be elected with as little as one percent of the vote.[88]

The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the 2009 presidential election was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout, and widespread electoral fraud, ending in Karzai's reelection.[89] The 2014 presidential election ended with Ashraf Ghani winning with 56.44% of the votes.[90]

The National Assembly of Afghanistan in Kabul. The current site was built in 2015.

Political parties played a marginal role in post-2001 Afghan politics, in part due to Karzai's opposition to them.[91] In the 2005 parliamentary election, the ballots did not show candidates' party affiliation, so the results were dictated by the personal prestige of the candidates.[91] Among the elected officials were a large mix of former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, tribal nationalists, former communists, reformists, urban professionals, royalists and several former Taliban associates.[92][93] In the same period, Afghanistan became the 30th highest nation in terms of female representation in the National Assembly.[94] Parties became more influential after 2009, when a new law established more stringent requirements for party registration.[95] Nearly a hundred new parties were registered after the law came into effect,[96] and party activity increased in the 2014 elections, but party influence remained limited.[97]

Military

Black Hawks of the Afghan Air Force at Kandahar Airfield
Main article: Afghan Armed Forces

Before the fall of Kabul, the Afghan Armed Forces were under the Ministry of Defense, which included the Afghan Air Force (AAF) and the Afghan National Army (ANA). The Afghan Defense University housed various educational establishments for the Afghan Armed Forces, including the National Military Academy of Afghanistan.[98]

The United States Department of Defense used the exonym "Afghan National Security Forces" (ANSF) to describe the Armed Forces and Police together. As of 30 June 2020, the ANSF or Afghan National Defence and Security Forces (ANDSF) were composed of the Afghan National Army (including the Afghan Border Force, Afghan Air Force, Afghan Territorial Army, Afghan National Civil Order Force), Afghan National Police (including Afghan Local Police), and the National Directorate of Security (including the Afghan Special Force).[99]

Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Afghanistan
Afghan National Police (ANP) in Kunar Province

Law enforcement was the responsibility of the Afghan National Police (ANP), which was part of the Ministry of Interior Affairs. The ANP consisted of two primary branches, the Afghan Uniformed Police and the Afghan Border Police. The mission of the Uniformed Police was to ensure security within Afghanistan, prevent crime, and protect property. The Border Police was responsible for securing and maintaining the nation's borders with neighboring states as well as all international airports within the country.[100] Afghanistan's intelligence agency, the National Directorate of Security (NDS), assisted the ANP with security matters.[101] Despite that, all parts of Afghanistan were considered dangerous due to militant activities and terrorism-related incidents. Kidnapping for ransom and robberies were common in major cities. Every year hundreds of Afghan police were killed in the line of duty.[102] Afghanistan was also the world's leading producer of opium.[103] Afghanistan's opium poppy harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply.[104][105] The Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics was responsible for the monitoring and eradication of the illegal drug business.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Afghanistan

Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.[106] Under the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally.[107] Relations with Pakistan were often tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups. Afghanistan also had diplomatic relations with neighboring China, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as with regional states such as Bangladesh, Japan, Kazakhstan, Nepal, Russia, South Korea, and the UAE.

The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 to help the country recover from decades of war.[108] Until summer 2021, several NATO member states deployed about 17,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the Resolute Support Mission.[109] Its main purpose was to train the Afghan National Security Forces.

On 1 December 2021, the nine-nation Credentials Committee of the General Assembly voted to defer a decision to allow the Taliban to represent Afghanistan at the UN.[110] However, on 15 February 2022, the UN released an updated list of member state officials with the names of Ghani administration officials removed.[111]

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Afghanistan, Women in Afghanistan, LGBT rights in Afghanistan, and Afghan refugees

Freedom of expression and the press were permitted and promoted in the 2004 constitution, so long as it did not threaten national or religious integrity or did not defame individuals. In 2019, Reporters Without Borders listed the media environment of Afghanistan as 121st out of 179 on its Press Freedom Index, with 1st being most free.[112][113] However many issues regarding human rights existed contrary to the law, often committed by local tribes, lawmakers and hardline clerics. Journalists in Afghanistan faced threat from both the security forces and insurgents.[114] The Afghan Journalists Safety Committee (AJSC) claimed in 2017 that the Afghan government accounted for 46% of the attacks on Afghan journalists, while insurgents were responsible for rest of the attacks.[115]

According to Global Rights, almost 90% of women in Afghanistan had experienced physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse or forced marriage. In the majority of cases, the perpetrators of these crimes were the families of the victim, and a 2009 proposal for a law against the violence of women could eventually only be passed through a presidential decree.[116] In 2012, Afghanistan recorded 240 cases of honor killings, but the total number were believed to be much higher. Of the reported honor killings, 21% were committed by the victims' husbands, 7% by their brothers, 4% by their fathers, and the rest by other relatives.[117][118]

Homosexuality was taboo in Afghan society;[119] according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy was punished by up to a year in prison.[120] With the implementation of Sharia law, offenders could be punished by death;[121][122] however, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between youngsters and older men (typically wealthy or elite people) called bacha bazi persisted. Despite being illegal, the people engaging in the act were often not punished.

Ethnic and religious minorities such as Hazaras,[123][124] Sikhs,[125] Hindus,[126] and Christians[127] reportedly faced persecution in the country.[128]

On 14 August 2020, UN Human Rights Council experts issued a joint statement urging Afghanistan officials to prevent the killings of human rights defenders as there had been nine deaths of human rights defenders since January 2020.[129]

Infrastructure

In spite of the turbulent political situation and military conflict which defined the years of the republic an expansion in access to certain utilities and services also took place during this era.

Health and education

Main articles: Education in Afghanistan and Women's rights in Afghanistan

Between 2001 and 2021, Afghanistan experienced improvements in health, education and women's rights.[130][131] Life expectancy increased from 56 to 64 years and the maternal mortality rate was reduced by half. 89% of residents living in cities have access to clean water, up from 16% in 2001. The rate of child marriage has been reduced by 17%.[130][132] The population of Afghanistan increased by more than 50% between 2001 and 2014, while its GDP grew eightfold.[133]

A young Afghan girl in Qalat pictured by the 116th Infantry Battalion before receiving school supplies in 2011

As of 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, up from 1.2 million in 2001.[134] 3.2 million girls attended school in 2013, up from fewer than 50,000 in 2001.[135] 39% of girls were attending school in 2017 compared to 6% in 2003. In 2021, a third of students at university were women and 27% of members of parliament were women.[136] The literacy rate in 2021 has risen from 8% to 43% since 2001.[130] In 2018, UNICEF reported that 3.7 million children between the ages of 7 and 17, or 44 percent, were not attending school.[137]

School children in Ghazni Province (2007) – the number of children attending school at primary level increased from 5% in 2000 to 57% in 2018.

In 2020, there were over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9.5 million students. Of this, about 60% were males and 40% females. This was an increase from 900,000 exclusively male students in 2001. Over 174,000 students were enrolled in different universities around the country. About 21% of these were females.[138] However, former Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak had stated in 2013 that the construction of 8,000 schools was still required for the remaining children who were deprived of formal learning.[139]

As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older was 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).[140] The Afghan National Security Forces received mandatory literacy courses as part of their training.[141]

Technology

Main articles: Energy in Afghanistan and Renewable energy in Afghanistan

According to the World Bank, 98% of the rural population had access to electricity by 2018, up from 28% in 2008.[142] Overall the figure stood at 98.7%.[143] As of 2016, Afghanistan produced 1,400 megawatts of power, but still imported the majority of the electricity it consumed via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.[144]

In 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employed at least 120,000 people nationwide.[145]

Culture

Main article: Mass media in Afghanistan

Press restrictions were gradually relaxed and private media diversified after 2002, following more than two decades of tight controls. The Afghan media experienced rapid growth during the Karzai administration, with dozens of TV stations being established around the country. Afghanistan had 203 television stations, 284 radio stations and nearly 1,500 print media outlets in 2019.

The Afghan music scene re-emerged after the removal of the Taliban, with singing competition series such as Afghan Star and The Voice of Afghanistan becoming popular, with contestants performing songs, including those formerly banned.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Incorrect names that have been used as demonyms are Afghani[2] and Afghanistani.[3]
  2. ^ Afghanistan had two vice presidential positions, the First Vice President and the Second Vice President.
  3. ^ 31 March to 29 September

References

  1. ^ "Country Profile: Afghanistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  2. ^ Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Reference.com (Retrieved 13 November 2007).
  3. ^ Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. Reference.com (Retrieved 13 November 2007). Archived 28 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ^ "Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  5. ^ Afghan | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. the Cambridge English Dictionary. ISBN 9781107660151.
  6. ^ Central Statistics Office Afghanistan
  7. ^ Central Statistics Office Afghanistan, 2020.
  8. ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects".
  9. ^ Watkins, Andrew H. (November 2021). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina (eds.). "An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months" (PDF). CTC Sentinel. 14 (9). West Point, New York: Combating Terrorism Center: 1–14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
  10. ^ Borger, Julian (18 May 2022). "US withdrawal triggered catastrophic defeat of Afghan forces, damning watchdog report finds". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  11. ^ "US withdrawal prompted collapse of Afghan army: Report". Al Jazeera. 18 May 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  12. ^ Ladwig, Walter C. (2017). The Forgotten Front: Patron-Client Relationships in Counter Insurgency. Cambridge University Press. p. 302. ISBN 9781107170773. Retrieved 15 May 2018. As with their Cold War counterparts, it was erroneous for American policymakers to believe that the governments of contemporary client states, such as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, necessarily shared their desire to defeat radical Islamic insurgents by adhering to the prescriptions of U.S. counterinsurgency doctrine.
  13. ^ a b "Afghan vice president says he is "caretaker" president". reuters.com. 17 August 2021. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  14. ^ "An anti-Taliban front forming in Panjshir? Ex top spy Saleh, son of 'Lion of Panjshir' meet at citadel". The Week. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  15. ^ "Panjshir flies flag of resistance again; Amrullah says he is President of Afghanistan". Tribune India. 17 August 2021. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  16. ^ "Exiled Taliban leaders return to take charge of Afghanistan". BBC News. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  17. ^ "Amrullah Saleh in Tajikistan? Afghanistan's Ex-VP May Have Made 'Tactical Retreat' as Taliban Closed In". News18. 23 September 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
  18. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386. S/RES/1386(2001) 31 May 2001. – (UNSCR 1386)
  19. ^ "United States Mission to Afghanistan". Nato.usmission.gov. Archived from the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  20. ^ "Afghanistan's Refugee Crisis". MERIP. 24 September 2001.
  21. ^ "Afghanistan: Civilians at Risk". Doctors Without Borders – USA.
  22. ^ Makhmalbaf, Mohsen (1 November 2001). "Limbs of No Body: The World's Indifference to the Afghan Tragedy". Monthly Review.
  23. ^ "Rebuilding Afghanistan". Return to Hope.
  24. ^ "Japan aid offer to 'broke' Afghanistan". CNN. 15 January 2002.
  25. ^ "Rebuilding Afghanistan: The U.S. Role". Stanford University.
  26. ^ Fossler, Julie. "USAID Afghanistan". Afghanistan.usaid.gov. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  27. ^ "Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan: Backgrounder". Afghanistan.gc.ca. 9 July 2010. Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  28. ^ "Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban". United States: ABC News. 31 July 2008. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
  29. ^ Crilly, Rob; Spillius, Alex (26 July 2010). "Wikileaks: Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afghanistan attacks". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 29 January 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
  30. ^ "Afghan President Karzai Receives Philadelphia Liberty Medal". Philanthropy News Digest (PND).
  31. ^ Howard Adelman (15 April 2016). Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home. Taylor & Francis. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-317-07407-6.
  32. ^ "The foreign troops left in Afghanistan". BBC News. 15 October 2015.
  33. ^ "How Many Troops Are Currently in Afghanistan?". Forces Network. 18 May 2018.
  34. ^ "Huge security as Afghan presidential election looms". BBC. 4 April 2014. Archived from the original on 21 October 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  35. ^ "Afghanistan votes in historic presidential election". BBC. 5 April 2014. Archived from the original on 21 October 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  36. ^ Harooni, Mirwais; Donati, Jessica (4 April 2014). "Landmark Afghanistan Presidential Election Held Under Shadow of Violence". HuffPost. Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  37. ^ "Afghanistan's Future: Who's Who in Pivotal Presidential Election". NBC News. Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  38. ^ "Afghan president Ashraf Ghani inaugurated after bitter campaign". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  39. ^ "U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan". No. online. CBA News. Associated Press. 28 December 2014. Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
  40. ^ Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul (28 December 2014). "Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan". The Guardian. Kabul. Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  41. ^ "U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan". CBS News. 28 December 2014. Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  42. ^ "TSG IntelBrief: Afghanistan 16.0". The Soufan Group. Archived from the original on 9 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  43. ^ "Afghan Civilians". Brown University. 2015. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  44. ^ "Body Count – Casualty Figures after 10 Years of the 'War on Terror' – Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan" (PDF). IPPNW, PGS and PSR, First international edition (March 2015). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2015.
  45. ^ Gabriela Motroc (7 April 2015). "U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3 million people in a decade". Australian National Review. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015.
  46. ^ "220,000 killed in US war in Afghanistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report". Daily Times. 30 March 2015. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015.
  47. ^ "NATO to Cut Forces in Afghanistan, Match US Withdrawal". VOA News. 14 April 2021.
  48. ^ Robertson, Nic (24 June 2021). "Afghanistan is disintegrating fast as Biden's troop withdrawal continues". CNN.
  49. ^ "Afghanistan stunned by scale and speed of security forces' collapse". The Guardian. 13 July 2021.
  50. ^ "Afghan government could fall within six months of U.S. military withdrawal, new intelligence assessment says". The Washington Post. 24 June 2021. ISSN 0190-8286.
  51. ^ "Inside an Afghan city as it falls to the Taliban". New York Post. 14 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  52. ^ "Afghanistan: Heavy fighting ongoing on the outskirts of Kabul as of early Aug. 15; a total blackout reported in the city". GardaWorld. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  53. ^ Lalzoy, Najibullah (15 August 2021). "Afghan President leaves country, Taliban directed to enter Kabul". The Khaama Press News Agency. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  54. ^ Sanger, David E.; Cooper, Helene (14 August 2021). "Taliban Sweep in Afghanistan Follows Years of U.S. Miscalculations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  55. ^ Latifi, Ali M. "Kabul near standstill on day one of the Taliban's Emirate". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  56. ^ "Afghanistan's Hekmatyar says heading for Doha with Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah to meet Taliban - Al Jazeera". Reuters. 16 August 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  57. ^ AFP (18 August 2021). "Taliban met ex-Afghan leader Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah". Brecorder. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  58. ^ Turak, Natasha; Macias, Amanda (18 August 2021). "Ousted Afghan President Ashraf Ghani resurfaces in UAE after fleeing Kabul, Emirati government says". CNBC. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  59. ^ "Ghani says he backs talks as Taliban meet with Karzai, Abdullah". New Age. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  60. ^ "Leadership". Northern Alliance: Fighting for a Free Afghanistan. Friends of the Northern Alliance. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  61. ^ "Panjshir flies flag of resistance". Tribune India. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
  62. ^ Shah, Saeed (6 September 2021). "Taliban Claim to Have Conquered Last Pocket of Resistance in Afghanistan". Wall Street Journal.
  63. ^ Robertson, Nic; Kohzad, Nilly; Lister, Tim; Regan, Helen (6 September 2021). "Taliban claims victory in Panjshir, but resistance forces say they still control strategic position in the valley". CNN. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  64. ^ Pannett, Rachel (6 September 2021). "Panjshir Valley, last resistance holdout in Afghanistan, falls to the Taliban". The Washington Post. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  65. ^ "Panjshir Resistance folds up for now; Saleh reportedly in Tajikistan, Massoud in France". The Tribune. 24 September 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
  66. ^ Cole, Matthew; Klippenstein, Ken (22 September 2021). "Afghan Resistance Leaders, Long Backed By CIA, Have Fled Following Taliban Takeover". The Intercept. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021.
  67. ^ "New outfit Afghanistan Freedom Front vows to end Taliban's 'tyrant rule'". N. V. I. Bureau. 12 March 2022. Archived from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  68. ^ "ACLED Regional Overview - South Asia and Afghanistan (2-8 April 2022) - Afghanistan | ReliefWeb". 14 April 2022.
  69. ^ "Six Taliban Members Killed in Alleged Missile Attack by Liberation Front on Bagram Airport - Hasht-e Subh Daily". 8am.af. Retrieved 6 July 2022.[permanent dead link‍]
  70. ^ "Taliban to Clear Its Ranks From Non-Pashtun Commanders – Hasht-e Subh Daily". 8am.af.[permanent dead link‍]
  71. ^ Goldbaum, Christina; Rahim, Najim; Hayeri, Kiana (18 August 2022). "The Bloody Uprising Against the Taliban Led by One of Their Own". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  72. ^ a b c "گزارش‌ها از آغاز درگیری میان طالبان و نیروهای مولوی مهدی در بلخاب". BBC News فارسی (in Persian). 23 June 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
  73. ^ "کریم خلیلی: طالبان در ولسوالی بلخاب جنایت علیه بشریت را مرتکب شدند". روزنامه صبح کابل. 28 June 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
  74. ^ "تنش در سرپل؛ طالبان به ولسوالی بلخاب "نیروی نظامی" اعزام می‌کند". BBC News فارسی (in Persian). 13 June 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  75. ^ "طالبان: مولوی مهدی هنگام خروج از افغانستان کشته شد". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  76. ^ Rasool, Mohammed (17 August 2022). "The Armed Resistance Against the Taliban Is Still Here". Vice. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  77. ^ "چه کسانی در سمنگان با طالبان می‌جنگند؟". ایندیپندنت فارسی (in Persian). 8 December 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  78. ^ "Afghan 'Fighting Season' Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups". www.voanews.com. 27 April 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  79. ^ "The Supreme Court Chief Justice Biography". supremecourt.gov.af. Archived from the original on 3 October 2015.
  80. ^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 Results". Transparency International. 25 January 2017. Archived from the original on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
  81. ^ "Corruption widespread in Afghanistan, UNODC survey says". UNODC.org. 19 January 2010. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  82. ^ George, Brian. "The Kabul to Dubai Pipeline: Lessons Learned From the Kabul Bank Scandal". Carnegie Endowment. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
  83. ^ Danish, Jamil. "Afghanistan's corruption epidemic is wasting billions in aid". Guardian. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
  84. ^ "Afghanistan president Ashraf Ghani and rival Abdullah Abdullah reach power-sharing deal". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  85. ^ "Afghan president and rival strike power-sharing deal after feuding for months". Reuters. 17 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020..
  86. ^ "Afghanistan crisis: Taliban include Karzai, Abdullah, Baradar in its 12-member council". ANI News. 24 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
  87. ^ "Afghans defy deadly poll violence". BBC News. 21 October 2018. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2018.
  88. ^ "Afghanistan's "Lottery Effect"". Afghan 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2015.
  89. ^ Cooper, Helene (2 November 2009). "Karzai Gets New Term as Afghan Runoff is Scrapped". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  90. ^ "2014 Afghanistan Election Results". Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan. Archived from the original on 6 June 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  91. ^ a b Barfield 2012, p. 301.
  92. ^ "RAWA Photo Gallery: They are Responsible for Afghanistan's Tragedy". RAWA. Archived from the original on 19 October 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
  93. ^ Fleschenberg, Andrea (2009), Afghanistan's parliament in the making (PDF), Berlin: Heinreich Boll Stiftung, ISBN 978-3-86928-006-6
  94. ^ "Women in Parliaments: World Classification". Ipu.org. 30 November 2009. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
  95. ^ "Political Parties in Afghanistan". British Embassy Kabul. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
  96. ^ Zia Ur Rehman. "Afghanistan sees new political parties form". Central Asia Online. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014.
  97. ^ Anna Larson. "Political Parties in Afghanistan" (PDF). United States Institute of Peace. pp. 1–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
  98. ^ Glasch, Mike (13 October 2015). "USACE TAA employee named top engineer". Army.mil. US Army. Archived from the original on 22 November 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  99. ^ European Asylum Support Office 2020, p. 26.
  100. ^ CJ Radin (November 2008). "Afghan National Security Forces Order of Battle" (PDF). The Long War Journal. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  101. ^ "Afghanistan's dysfunctional security agencies". BBC. 14 August 2011. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  102. ^ "Staggering Afghan death toll revealed". 25 January 2019. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  103. ^ "UNODC 2010 world drug report, page 43" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
  104. ^ Vanda Felbab-Brown (1 December 2009). Shooting Up: Counterinsurgency and the War on Drugs. Brookings Institution Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-8157-0450-8. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  105. ^ Afghan Governor Wants Government To Control Poppy Crop (Radio broadcast). NPR. 6 July 2016. Event occurs at 0:10. Archived from the original on 7 July 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016. Afghanistan's poppy production… accounts for more than 91 percent of the world's heroin. David Greene (host, Morning Edition), Hayatullah Hayat (Governor of Helmand Province, Afghanistan), Tom Bowman (reporter), Dianne Feinstein (U.S. Senator, Chair of the Caucus on International Narcotics Control).
  106. ^ Dupree 1997, p. 642.
  107. ^ "Hillary Clinton says Afghanistan 'major non-Nato ally'". BBC News. 7 July 2012. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  108. ^ "Security Council endorses establishment of UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan for initial 12-month period". United Nations. 28 March 2002. Archived from the original on 21 July 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  109. ^ "Resolute Support Mission: Key Facts and Figures" (PDF). NATO. June 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  110. ^ Gladstone, Rick (1 December 2021). "U.N. Seats Denied, for Now, to Afghanistan's Taliban and Myanmar's Junta". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  111. ^ Taieb, Rajab (22 February 2022). "Ghani Removed From UN Heads of State List". TOLOnews. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  112. ^ "Afghanistan". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  113. ^ "Afghanistan Descends 3 Points on Press Freedom Index". TOLOnews. 19 April 2019. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  114. ^ "Afghan journalists 'face increasing attacks and threats' – report". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
  115. ^ "Violence Against Journalists Surges in Afghanistan in 2017". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
  116. ^ "Afghanistan: No Country for Women | International Women's Day | Al Jazeera". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
  117. ^ Ghanizada, Ahmad Shah (9 June 2013). "240 cases of honor killing recorded in Afghanistan". The Khaama Press News Agency. khaama.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  118. ^ "AIHRC: 400 rape, honor killings registered in Afghanistan in 2 years". latinbusinesstoday.com. 10 June 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  119. ^ Ahmadzai, Aria (7 October 2016). "The LGBT community living under threat of death". BBC News.
  120. ^ "Afghanistan | Human Dignity Trust". www.humandignitytrust.org.
  121. ^ Bezhan, Frud. "'Fake Life': Being Gay in Afghanistan". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
  122. ^ "LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds". The Independent. 17 May 2016. Archived from the original on 14 June 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  123. ^ Ali Mirzad (16 April 2021). "Opinion: Why does Canada's compassion not extend to the persecuted Hazaras?". National Post.
  124. ^ Stephanie Babych (27 August 2021). "Hazara expat gripped with fear for family in Afghanistan as Canada ends evacuation mission". Calgary Herald.
  125. ^ Kumar, Ruchi (28 March 2020). "For Afghan Sikhs, it's between violence and exodus". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  126. ^ Mashal, Mujib; Abed, Fahim (19 July 2020). "India Offers Escape to Afghan Hindus and Sikhs Facing Attacks". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  127. ^ "World Watch List | Afghanistan Statistics". Open Doors. Archived from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  128. ^ Maggie Gile (20 August 2021). "Taliban tortured, killed ethnic minorities, report says, prompting fears of old regime". Newsweek. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  129. ^ "Afghanistan: More action needed to stop killings of human rights defenders". UN News. 14 August 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  130. ^ a b c "Counting the costs of America's 20-year war in Afghanistan". AP NEWS. 30 April 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
  131. ^ Jazeera, Al. "Afghanistan: Visualising the impact of 20 years of war". interactive.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  132. ^ cf. Kristof, Nicholas D., "A Merciful War", Archived 28 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times, 1 February 2002. "By my calculations, our invasion of Afghanistan may end up saving one million lives over the next decade. ... But now aid is pouring in and lives are being saved on an enormous scale. UNICEF, for example, has vaccinated 734,000 children against measles over the last two months, in a country where virtually no one had been vaccinated against the disease in the previous 10 years. Because measles often led to death in Afghanistan, the vaccination campaign will save at least 35,000 children's lives each year. ... Heidi J. Larson of UNICEF says that if all goes well, child and maternal mortality rates will drop in half in Afghanistan over the next five years. That would mean 112,000 fewer children and 7,500 fewer pregnant women dying each year."
  133. ^ Coll, Steve (2019). Directorate S: The C.I.A. and America's Secret Wars in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Penguin Group. pp. 661–662. ISBN 9780143132509. cf. "Population, total–Afghanistan". World Bank. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  134. ^ ISAF Spokesman Discusses Progress in Afghanistan Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. International Security Assistance Force/NATO. 25 July 2011.
  135. ^ Successes and challenges in Afghan girls' education Archived 23 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 11 October 2012.
  136. ^ "In numbers: Life in Afghanistan after America leaves". BBC News. 13 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  137. ^ "Up to 60 percent of Afghan girls out of school: report". www.aljazeera.com. 3 June 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
  138. ^ "Education". USAID. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  139. ^ Adina, Mohammad Sabir (18 May 2013). "Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
  140. ^ "UNESCO UIS: Afghanistan". UNESCO. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  141. ^ "Rising literacy in Afghanistan ensures transition". Army.mil. 14 June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  142. ^ "Access to electricity, rural (% of rural population) – Afghanistan | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
  143. ^ "Access to electricity (% of population) – Afghanistan". World Bank.
  144. ^ "Afghanistan Has Capacity To Produce 310,000MW Power". TOLOnews.
  145. ^ "Connecting Afghanistan: The rise of technology in governance and society – The Embassy of Afghanistan in London". afghanistanembassy.org.uk. Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018.

Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Afghanistan
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Afghanistan".
Preceded by Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
2004-2021 		Succeeded by
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&oldid=1253785923"