Jump to content

Uyghurs

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Uighur people)

Uyghurs
  • ئۇيغۇرلار
  • Уйғурлар
  • Uyghurlar
A Uyghur man in Kashgar
Total population
c.13.5 million[note 1]
Regions with significant populations
China
(mainly in Xinjiang)
11.8 million[1]
Kazakhstan301,584 (2024)[2]
Pakistan200,000 (2010)[3]
Turkey100,000–300,000[4]
Kyrgyzstan200,000[5]
Uzbekistan48,500 (2019)[6]
United States8,905 (per US Census Bureau 2015)[7] – 15,000 (per ETGE estimate 2021)[8]
Saudi Arabia8,730 (2018)[9]
Australia5,000–10,000[10]
Russia3,696 (2010)[11]
India~3,500[12]
Turkmenistan~3,000[13]
Afghanistan2,000[14]
Japan2,000 (2021)[15]
Sweden2,000 (2019)[16]
Canada~1,555 (2016)[17]
Germany~750 (2013)[18]
Finland327 (2021)[19]
Mongolia258 (2000)[20]
Ukraine197 (2001)[21]
Languages
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Uzbeks,[22] Ili Turks, Äynus
Uyghurs
Uyghur name
Uyghurئۇيغۇرلار
Transcriptions
Latin YëziqiUyghurlar
Siril YëziqiУйғурлар
Uyghur IPA[ujɣurˈlɑr]
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese维吾尔
Traditional Chinese維吾爾
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinWéiwú'ěr
Bopomofoㄨㄟˊ ㄨˊ ㄦˇ
Wade–GilesWei2-wu2-erh3
Tongyong PinyinWéi-wú-ěr
IPA[wěɪ.ǔ.àɚ]

The Uyghurs,[note 2] alternatively spelled Uighurs,[25][26][27] Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities.[28]

The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of oases scattered across the Taklamakan Desert within the Tarim Basin. These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many civilizations including China, the Mongols, the Tibetans and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century, and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century. Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity.

An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs still live in the Tarim Basin.[29] The rest of Xinjiang's Uyghurs mostly live in Ürümqi, the capital city of Xinjiang, which is located in the historical region of Dzungaria. The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are the Taoyuan Uyghurs of north-central Hunan's Taoyuan County.[30] Significant diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkey.[31] Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden.[32]

Since 2014,[33][34] the Chinese government has been accused by various organizations, such as Human Rights Watch[35] of subjecting Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread persecution, including forced sterilization[36][37] and forced labor.[38][39][40] Scholars[who?] estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have been arbitrarily detained in the Xinjiang internment camps since 2017;[41][42][43] Chinese government officials claim that these camps, created under CCP general secretary Xi Jinping's administration, serve the goals of ensuring adherence to Chinese Communist Party (CCP) ideology, preventing separatism, fighting terrorism, and providing vocational training to Uyghurs.[44] Various scholars[who?], human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount to crimes against humanity, or even genocide.

Etymology

In the Uyghur language, the ethnonym is written ئۇيغۇر in Arabic script, Уйғур in Uyghur Cyrillic and Uyghur or Uygur (as the standard Chinese romanization, GB 3304–1991) in Latin;[45] they are all pronounced as [ʔʊjˈʁʊːr].[46][47] In Chinese, this is transcribed into characters as 维吾尔 / 維吾爾, which is romanized in pinyin as Wéiwú'ěr.

In English, the name is officially spelled Uyghur by the Xinjiang government[48] but also appears as Uighur,[49] Uigur[49] and Uygur (these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур). The name is usually pronounced in English as /ˈwɡʊər, -ɡər/ WEE-goor, -⁠gər (and thus may be preceded by the indefinite article "a"),[49][50][51][25] although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation /ˌiˈɡʊər/ OO-ee-GOOR instead (which, in contrast, calls for the indefinite article "an").[23][24][52]

The term's original meaning is unclear. Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyɣur[53] (Old Turkic: 𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata of Yaglaqar, came from the Uigur land." (Old Turkic: Uyγur jerinte Yaγlaqar qan ata keltim).[54] It is transcribed into Tang annals as 回纥 / 回紇 (Mandarin: Huíhé, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] in Middle Chinese).[55] It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in the interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates (AD 630–684).[56] The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to 回鹘 / 回鶻 (Mandarin: Huíhú, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).[57][58]

Modern etymological explanations for the name Uyghur range from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself"[49] and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkic uy/uð-) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkic oðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.[57] The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than a tribal designation[59] or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz.[60] The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th century[46][47] by the Soviet Bolsheviks to replace the previous terms Turk and Turki.[61][note 3] The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.

The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named 袁紇 Yuanhe (< MC ZS *ɦʉɐn-ɦət) and derived from a confederation named 高车 / 高車 (lit. "High Carts"), read as Gāochē in Mandarin Chinese but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as the Tiele (铁勒 / 鐵勒, Tiělè).[63][64][65] Gāochē in turn has been connected to the Uyghur Qangqil (قاڭقىل or Қаңқил).[66]

Identity

A Uyghur girde naan baker
Uyghur blacksmiths at work. Yengisar, Xinjiang, China. Yengisar is famous for the quality of its knives.
Uyghur man in traditional clothing, playing a tambur, a traditional Uyghur instrument.

Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in northern China, Mongolia and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture.[67][68] The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis. Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic Saka tribes and other Indo-European peoples inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.[69]

Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.[70]

A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry (ANE, about 72%), with smaller admixture from Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA, about 28%), but no detectable Western Steppe-related ancestry.[71][72] They formed a genetically isolated local population that "adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert."[73] These mummified individuals were long suspected to have been "Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists", ancestors of the Tocharians, but the authors of this study found no genetic connection with Indo-European-speaking migrants, particularly the Afanasievo or BMAC cultures.[74]

Origin of modern nomenclature

The Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travelers called "Sart" (a name they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking Central Asians in general), while Western travelers called them Turki, in recognition of their language. The Chinese used to call them "Ch'an-t'ou" ('Turbaned Heads') but this term has been dropped, being considered derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh. As a matter of fact there was for centuries no 'national' name for them; people identified themselves with the oasis they came from, such as Kashgar or Turfan.

— Owen Lattimore, "Return to China's Northern Frontier." The Geographical Journal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973[75]

The term "Uyghur" was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an 'ancient people'. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitled The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said "the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol and Kalmuck".[76] Before 1921/1934,[clarification needed] Western writers called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases "Turki" and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin to Ili, Ürümqi and Dzungaria in the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as "Taranchi", meaning "farmer". The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as "Sart",[77] "Turk" or "Turki".[78][note 3] In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves "Chantou" if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim.[79][80] The term "Chantou" (纏頭; Chántóu, meaning "Turban Head") was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Altishahr (now Southern Xinjiang),[81][82] including by Hui (Tungan) people.[83] These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity;[84] for example those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kashgarliq or Kashgari, while those from Hotan identity themselves as "Hotani".[80][85] Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases Kashgari,[86] a term still used in some regions of Pakistan.[87] The Turkic people also used "Musulman", which means "Muslim", to describe themselves.[85][88][89]

A possible Tocharian or Sogdian monk (left) with an East Asian Buddhist monk (right). A fresco from the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, dated to the 9th or 10th century (Kara-Khoja Kingdom).

Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and Musulmān (Muslim); the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulmān.[90][91] Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.[92]

The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[93] It followed western European orientalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectuals[94] and a 19th-century proposal from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara-Khanid Khanate formed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate.[95] Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term "Uyghur" is based on a decision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent, attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang).[93][96][97][98] There, "Uyghur" was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity, although they themselves note that they were not to be confused with the Uyghur Empire of medieval history.[77][99] According to Linda Benson, the Soviets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as "Turki", "East Turkestani" or "Muslim".[77]

On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui nationality".[100][101] The Qing dynasty and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as "turban-headed Hui" to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.[77][102][note 4] In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella Maillart and Sven Hedin, referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as "Turki" in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang's and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term "Uyghur" to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[77][95][104] "Uyghur" replaced "rag-head".[105]

Sheng Shicai's introduction of the "Uighur" name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and Masud Sabri. They demanded the names "Türk" or "Türki" be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his people,[106] while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims.[107][108] After the Communist victory, the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term "Uyghur" to describe the modern ethnicity.[77]

In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agents[clarification needed] designate as "Uyghur" certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County and the Dolan people, thought to be closer to the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.[109][110] The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people.[111] In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.[112]

Another ethnicity, the Western Yugur of Gansu, identify themselves as the "Yellow Uyghur" (Sarïq Uyghur).[113] Some scholars say the Yugurs' culture, language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.[114] Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar as sub-groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar.[115]

"Turkistani" is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs.[116] For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity "Turkistani". Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city, such as "Al-Kashgari" from Kashgar. Saudi-born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari's family originated from Kashgar.[117][118]

Population

Uyghur hunter in Kashgar

The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as in Taoyuan County where an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.[119][120]

The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population.[121] As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million.[122] Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as the World Uyghur Congress and Uyghur American Association claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million.[123][124][125][126] Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million.[127][128] Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with Professor Dru C. Gladney writing in the 2004 book Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland that there is "scant evidence" to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.[129]

Population in Xinjiang

Area 1953 Census 1964 Census 1982 Census 1990 Census 2000 Census 2010 Census Ref.
Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT.
Ürümqi 28,786 19.11% 56,345 9.99% 121,561 10.97% 266,342 12.79% 387,878 12.46% [130]
Karamay Not applicable 23,730 14.54% 30,895 15.09% 37,245 13.78% 44,866 11.47% [131]
Turpan 139,391 89.93% 170,512 75.61% 294,039 71.14% 351,523 74.13% 385,546 70.01% 429,527 68.96% [132]
Hami 33,312 41.12% 42,435 22.95% 75,557 20.01% 84,790 20.70% 90,624 18.42% 101,713 17.77% [133]
Changji 18,784 7.67% 23,794 5.29% 44,944 3.93% 52,394 4.12% 58,984 3.92% 63,606 4.45% [134]
Bortala 8,723 21.54% 18,432 15.53% 38,428 13.39% 53,145 12.53% 59,106 13.32% [135]
Bayingolin 121,212 75.79% 153,737 46.07% 264,592 35.03% 310,384 36.99% 345,595 32.70% 406,942 31.83% [136]
Kizilsu Not applicable 122,148 68.42% 196,500 66.31% 241,859 64.36 281,306 63.98% 339,926 64.68% [137]
Ili 568,109 23.99% 667,202 26.87%
Aksu 697,604 98.17% 778,920 80.44% 1,158,659 76.23% 1,342,138 79.07% 1,540,633 71.93% 1,799,512 75.90% [138]
Kashgar 1,567,069 96.99% 1,671,336 93.63% 2,093,152 87.92% 2,606,775 91.32% 3,042,942 89.35% 3,606,779 90.64% [139]
Hotan 717,277 99.20% 774,286 96.52% 1,124,331 96.58% 1,356,251 96.84% 1,621,215 96.43% 1,938,316 96.22% [140]
Tacheng 36,437 6.16% 36,804 4.12% 38,476 3.16% [141]
Altay 3,622 3.73% 6,471 3.09% 10,255 2.19% 10,688 2.09% 10,068 1.79% 8,703 1.44% [142]
Shihezi Not applicable Not applicable 7,064 1.20% 7,574 1.99%
Aral Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 9,481 5.78%
Tumxuk Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 91,472 67.39%
Wujiaqu Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 223 0.23%
Ref. [143] [144]

Genetics

A study of mitochondrial DNA (2004) (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%.[145][146] Uyghurs in Kazakhstan on the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.[146]

A study based on paternal DNA (2005) shows West Eurasian haplogroups (J and R) in Uyghurs make up 65% to 70% and East Asian haplogroups (C, N, D and O) 30% to 35%.[147]

Uyghur schoolchildren in Kashgar (2011)

One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian (Hotan) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European or West Asian (Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40% East Asian or Siberian ancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%.[148] Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European/West Asian component at 52% (ranging individually from 44.9% to 63.1%) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47% (ranging individually from 30% to 55%) in the northern Uyghur population.[149]

A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results.[150]

Genetic distance between different Eurasian populations and frequency of West- and East-Eurasian components.[151]

A study (2013) based on autosomal DNA shows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations. The analysis of the diversity of cytochrome B further suggests Uyghurs are closer to Chinese and Siberian populations than to various Caucasoid groups in West Asia or Europe. However, there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang's southern Uyghurs and Chinese population, but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese.[152]

A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.[153]

An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by the Tianshan Mountains which form a natural barrier, with gene flows from the east and west. The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups: one that migrated from the west harbouring a West-Eurasian component associated with European ancestry (25–37%) and a South Asian ancestry component (12–20%) and one from the east, harbouring a Siberian ancestry component (15–17%) and an East Asian ancestry component (29–47%). In total, Uyghurs on average are 33.3% West Eurasian, 32.9% East Asian, 17.9% South Asian, and 16% Siberian. Western parts of Xinjiang are more West Eurasian components than East Eurasian. It suggests at least two major waves of admixture, one ~3,750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang, and another occurring around 750 years ago.[154]

A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.[155]

History

Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, Xinjiang, China, 8th–9th century AD, wall painting

The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention.[156] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book A History of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history,[157] and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan.[158] However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paper History and Development of Xinjiang, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate.[159] The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[160] Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.[69][161][162][163]

Early history

Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European-looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze Age around 1800 BC. These people may have been of Tocharian origin, and some have suggested them to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese texts.[164][165] The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the Indo-European speaking Afanasevo culture of Southern Siberia (c. 3500–2500 BC).[166] A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry, with smaller admixture from Northeast Asians.[167] Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies' orientation suggests that they had been shamanists; meanwhile, Qurban Wäli claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as "Uyghur" rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists.[168]

Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes, who were closely related to the European Scythians and descended from the earlier Andronovo culture,[169] and who may have been present in the Khotan and Kashgar area in the first millennium BC, as well as the Sogdians who formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD.[170] There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend of Khotan suggests that the city was founded by Indians from ancient Taxila during the reign of Ashoka.[171][172] Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text the Book of Wei, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),[57] but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.[157]

The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin, where Kharosthi texts have been found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city-states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty; others include Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties. During the Tang dynasty they were conquered and placed under the control of the Protectorate General to Pacify the West, and the Indo-European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest.[173] The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people, including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate, to form the modern Uyghurs. The Indo-European Tocharian language later disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as the Old Uyghur language.[174]

The early Turkic peoples descended from agricultural communities in Northeast Asia who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle.[175][176][177][178][179] By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become equestrian nomads.[175] In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively Turkified by East Asian nomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia.[180][181]

Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries)

Bögü Qaghan, the third Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, in a suit of armour; 8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979)

The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the Tiele,[182] who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River. They overthrew the First Turkic Khaganate and established the Uyghur Khaganate.

The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840.[69] It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.

Uyghur kingdoms (9th–11th centuries)

Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c. 820 AD

The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among the Karluks and to places such as Jimsar, Turpan and Gansu.[183][note 5] These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was the Ganzhou Kingdom (870–1036) which ruled parts of Xinjiang, with its capital near present-day Zhangye, Gansu, China. The modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in 1036.

The second Uyghur kingdom, the Kingdom of Qocho ruled a larger section of Xinjiang, also known as Uyghuristan in its later period, was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern Gaochang) and Beshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or since.[69] The Uyghurs were originally Tengrists, shamanists, and Manichaean, but converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho accepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in the 1130s, and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire. The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to the Mongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by the Chagatai Khanate by the end of the 14th century.[69][185]

Islamization

In the tenth century, the Karluks, Yagmas, Chigils and other Turkic tribes founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Semirechye, Western Tian Shan, and Kashgaria and later conquered Transoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz Oghuz and some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by others.[186]

The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Turkic dynasty to do so.[187] Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history; however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process. The Indo-Iranian Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century, but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century.

Chagatai Khanate (Moghulistan) in 1490

The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first the Kara-Khitans in the 12th century, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son, Chagatai Khan. The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s, and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan, which meant "land of the Mongols". In the 14th century, a Chagatayid khan Tughluq Temür converted to Islam, Genghisid Mongol nobilities also followed him to convert to Islam.[188] His son Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.[186] After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area.[189]

From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Khojas.[186]

Islam was also spread by the Sufis, and branches of its Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into two rival factions, the Aqtaghlik ("White Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Afaqiyya) and the Qarataghlik ("Black Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Ishaqiyya). The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile.

Qing rule

Uyghur General Khojis (−1781), governor of Us-Turfan, who later resided at the Qing court in Beijing. Painting by a European Jesuit artist at the Chinese court in 1775.[190]

In the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Altishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja sought aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.

The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the Western Regions.[191]

Minaret of Turpan ruler Emin Khoja, built by his son and successor Suleiman in 1777 in the memory of his father (tallest minaret in China)

The Dzungar–Qing War lasted a decade. During the Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called "Younger Khoja" (Chinese: 霍集佔), also known as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja (Chinese: 波羅尼都), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars, then they rebelled against the Qing in the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas (1757–1759), an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this conflict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.[192][193]

The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.[194][195] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[196] In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[197] The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.[198] The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well.[199]: 71  The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[199]: 76  It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[199]: 72 

In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.[200]

The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghurs against the Manchus occurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment.[201][202][203] The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved.[204]

Yettishar

During the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), Andijani Uzbeks from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom called Yettishar ("Country of Seven Cities"). Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla, and Turpan.[citation needed] Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876.

Qing reconquest

After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan,[209][210] and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as "Muslim land" or southern marches of the Tian Shan,[211] were reorganized into a province named Xinjiang, meaning "New Territory".[212][213]

First East Turkestan Republic

In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic Jadidists had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin, who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule. In 1931, the Kumul Rebellion erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932,[214] which later led to the creation of the First East Turkestan Republic, officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan. Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933.[215] The First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan, and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by a Chinese Muslim army under General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan and fell following the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai's rule over East Turkestan/Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943. In April 1937, remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as the Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang and briefly established an independent government, controlling areas from Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, and even parts of Khotan, before it was crushed in October 1937, following Soviet intervention.[216] Sheng Shicai purged 50,000 to 100,000 people, mostly Uyghurs, following this uprising.[216]

Second East Turkestan Republic

The oppressive reign of Sheng Shicai fueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region, and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U.S. support for the Kuomintang of the Republic of China.[217] This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people's discontent in the region, culminating in their support of the Ili Rebellion in October 1944. The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 12 November 1944, in the three districts of what is now the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.[218] Several pro-KMT Uyghurs like Isa Yusuf Alptekin, Memet Emin Bugra, and Mesut Sabri opposed the Second East Turkestan Republic and supported the Republic of China.[219][220][221] In the summer of 1949, the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan Republic[222] and its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949.[223] On 13 October 1949, the People's Liberation Army entered the region and the East Turkestan National Army was merged into the PLA's 5th Army Corps, leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949.[224][225][226]

Contemporary era

Historical population
YearPop.±% p.a.
1990[227]7,214,431—    
20008,405,416+1.54%
201010,069,346+1.82%
Figures from Chinese Census
Ethnolinguistic map of Xinjiang in 1967
Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in Xinjiang according to census figures from 2000, the prefectures with Uyghur majorities are in blue.

Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949. He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region's first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity, mostly concentrated in the south-western Xinjiang.[228]

The Xinjiang conflict is a separatist conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzungaria and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and independence groups claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation. Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support a Pan-Islamic vision, exemplified by the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, while others support a Pan-Turkic vision, such as the East Turkestan Liberation Organization. A third group which includes the Uyghur American Association supports a western liberal vision and hopes for a US-led intervention into Xinjiang.[229] Some Uyghur fighters in Syria have also studied Zionism as a model for their homeland.[230][231] As a result, "no Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs", and Uyghurs in Pan-Turkic and Pan-Islamic camps have committed violence including assassinations on other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese society.[229] Uyghur activists like Rebiya Kadeer have mainly tried to garner international support for Uyghurs, including the right to demonstrate, although China's government has accused her of orchestrating the deadly July 2009 Ürümqi riots.[232]

Eric Enno Tamm's 2011 book stated that "authorities have censored Uyghur writers and 'lavished funds' on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as 'unifications (tongyi), never as conquests (zhengfu) or annexations (tunbing)' "[233]

Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang

In 2014, the Chinese government announced a "people's war on terror". Since then, Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious, cultural, economic and social lives.[234][235][236][237] In order to forcibly assimilate them, the government has arbitrarily detained more than an estimated one million Uyghurs in internment camps.[238][239] Human Rights Watch says that the camps have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017.[240][241]

Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to CCP ideology, with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests.[242] The New York Times has reported inmates are required to "sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write 'self-criticism' essays," and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards.[243] Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.[243]

Other policies have included forced labor,[244][245] suppression of Uyghur religious practices,[246] political indoctrination,[247] severe ill-treatment,[248] forced sterilization,[249] forced contraception,[250][251] and forced abortion.[252][253] According to German researcher Adrian Zenz, hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to boarding schools.[254][255] The Australian Strategic Policy Institute estimates that some sixteen thousand mosques have been razed or damaged since 2017.[256] Associated Press reported that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60%,[249] compared to a decrease by 9.69% in the whole country.[257] The allegation of Uyghur birth rates being lower than those of Han Chinese have been disputed by pundits from Pakistan Observer,[258] Antara,[259] and Detik.com.[260]

Protesters in Amsterdam with the Flag of East Turkestan

The policies have drawn widespread condemnation, with some characterizing them as a genocide. In an assessment by the UN Human Rights Office, the United Nations (UN) stated that China's policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may be crimes against humanity, although it did not use the term genocide.[261][262] The United States[263] and legislatures in several countries have described the policies as a genocide. The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[264][265]

Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan

Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and other parts of Changde in Hunan province.[266][267] They are descended from Hala Bashi, a Uyghur leader from Turpan (Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Rebellions in the Ming Dynasty.[30][268] The 1982 census recorded 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.[269] They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor.[270] There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry.[271] Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.[30]

The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.[272]

In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language, instead, they speak Chinese[clarification needed] as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.[272]

Culture

Religion

A Uyghur mosque in Khotan

The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise to shamanism and Tengrism. Uyghurs also practiced aspects of Zoroastrianism such as fire altars, and adopted Manichaeism as a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate,[273] possibly in 762 or 763. Ancient Uyghurs also practiced Buddhism after they moved to Qocho, and some believed in Church of the East.[274][275][276][277]

People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.[187] Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land.[278] There had been Christian conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by the First East Turkestan Republic government agents.[279][280][281] Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.[282] According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan were Christians in 2009.[283]

Modern Uyghurs are primarily Muslim and they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the Hui.[284] The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders.[284] While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities.[285] The veil, however, has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular.[286]

There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques.[287] The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs,[288] and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed.[289] According to a 2020 Australian Strategic Policy Institute report, Chinese authorities since 2017 have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.[290][291]

In the early 21st century, a new trend of Islam, Salafism, emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tended to demonstrate pan-Islamism and abandoned nationalism in favor of a caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China.[292][293] Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the Turkistan Islamic Party in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.[294]

Language

Map of language families in Xinjiang

The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such as Tocharian, Saka (Khotanese), and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages, which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. In the 11th century, Mahmud al-Kashgari noted that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script (Khotanese).[295] Writers of the Karakhanid period, Al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their Turkic language as Khāqāniyya (meaning royal) or the "language of Kashgar" or simply Turkic.[296][297]

The modern Uyghur language is classified under the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is closely related to Äynu, Lop, Ili Turki and Chagatay (the East Karluk languages) and slightly less closely to Uzbek (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an agglutinative language and has a subject-object-verb word order. It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages and has noun and verb cases but lacks distinction of gender forms.[298]

Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. The Arabic script, known as the Chagatay alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts, for example the Cyrillic-based Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet, a Latin Uyghur New Script and later a reformed Uyghur Arabic alphabet, which represents all vowels, unlike Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the Uyghur Latin alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.

In the 1990s, many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak Mandarin Chinese.[299]

Literature

Leaf from a Uyghur-Manichaean version of the Arzhang.

The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts,[300] but there were also narrative, poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However it is the literature of the Kara-Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and histories of Turkic peoples, and important works surviving from that era are Kutadgu Bilig, "Wisdom of Royal Glory" by Yusuf Khass Hajib (1069–70), Mahmud al-Kashgari's Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk, "A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects" (1072) and Ehmed Yükneki's Etebetulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints.[301][90][302] The Turki language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari.[303] Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki-language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints were written.[304] Perhaps the most famous and best-loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim Ötkür's Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir's Anayurt and Ziya Samedi's novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the years.[citation needed]

Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such as Muyesser Abdul'ehed, use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.[305]

Music

Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand

Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarim region's 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkish taksim performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.

The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[306]

Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.[307] Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a "duttar".

Uzbek composer Shakhida Shaimardanova uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.[308]

Dance

Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people.[309] It is commonly danced by people at weddings, festive occasions, and parties.[310] The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment. Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz (New Year) and other festivals.[310] Other dances include the Dolan dances, Shadiyane, and Nazirkom.[311] Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called dap are commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.

Art

Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan Depression.
Xinjiang carpet factory

During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books, and documents. There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with round arch ceilings often divided into four sections, each with a mural of Buddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while others are masterpieces of religious art.[312]

Education

Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the written script for the Mongolian language. In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques and madrassas. During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang[313] and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.[314]

In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, schools were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known as mektep or maktab, attached to the mosques,[315] The maktab provided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral.[316] Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools, some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century.[313][314][317] In madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar and Islamic law were taught.[318] In the early 20th century, the Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on education[319][320][321][322] and popularized the identity of "Turkestani".[323]

In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal.[324][325] Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government in Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.[326][327][328]

Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese.[329] Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred Uyghur language schools.[314][330] However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems. By 2002, Xinjiang University, originally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions, instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.[331] A special senior-secondary boarding school program for Uyghurs, the Xinjiang Class, with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000.[332] Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s, with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week.[333] The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction) among many Uyghurs, and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese.[334][335] Uyghurs in China, unlike the Hui and Salar who are also mostly Muslim, generally do not oppose coeducation,[336] however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys.[314]

Traditional medicine

Uyghur traditional medicine is known as Unani (طب یونانی), as historically used in the Mughal Empire.[337] Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine as "based on the ancient Greek theory" and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.[338] Today, traditional medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection.[339]

Cuisine

Uyghur polu (پولۇ, полу)

Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese elements. A typical Uyghur dish is polu (or pilaf), a dish found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of the Uyghur polu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apricots may also be added. Kawaplar (Uyghur: Каваплар) or chuanr (i.e., kebabs or grilled meat) are also found here. Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen (لەغمەن, ләғмән), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping (säy, from Chinese cai, ) usually made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes, onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers and cabbage. This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese lamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur.[340]

Uyghur food (Uyghur Yemekliri, Уйғур Йәмәклири) is characterized by mutton, beef, camel (solely bactrian), chicken, goose, carrots, tomatoes, onions, peppers, eggplant, celery, various dairy foods and fruits.

A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of tea with home-baked bread, hardened yogurt, olives, honey, raisins and almonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, naan and fruit before the main dishes are ready.

Sangza (ساڭزا, Саңза) are crispy fried wheat flour dough twists, a holiday specialty. Samsa (سامسا, Самса) are lamb pies baked in a special brick oven. Youtazi is steamed multi-layer bread. Göshnan (گۆشنان, Гөшнан) are pan-grilled lamb pies. Pamirdin (Памирдин) are baked pies stuffed with lamb, carrots and onions. Shorpa is lamb soup (شۇرپا, Шорпа). Other dishes include Toghach (Тоғач) (a type of tandoor bread) and Tunurkawab (Тунуркаваб). Girde (Гирде) is also a very popular bagel-like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside.

A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.[341][342][343]

Clothing

Doppa Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar

Chapan, a coat, and doppa, a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwa telpek (salwa tälpäk, салва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.[344]

In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.[345] Travelers of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar "transacting business with their veils thrown back" but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were "in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar".[346] In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.[347]

Uyghur man having his head shaved in a bazaar. Shaving of head is now seen mostly among the older generations.
Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to the Uyghurs

Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head.[348] Sir Aurel Stein observed that the "Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then".[349] No hair cutting for men took place on the ajuz ayyam, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.[350]

Traditional handicrafts

Yengisar is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives.[351][352][353] The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (پىچاق, пичақ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (پىچاقچىلىقى, пичақчилиқ).[354] Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer,[355] but it has also led to ethnic tension.[356][357] Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.[358]

Livelihood

Uyghur women on their way to work in Kashgar, 2011

Most Uyghurs are agriculturists.[citation needed] Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called karez that brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially from Ghulja), sweet melons (from Hami), and grapes from Turpan. However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.[359]

Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs.[360] Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs).[361] The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.[362]

Names

Since the arrival of Islam, most Uyghurs have used "Arabic names", but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some.[363] After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames.[364] Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Ürümqi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard-to-understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation.[365] Some pre-Islamic Uyghur names are preserved in Turpan and Qumul.[363] The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names.[288]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ The size of the Uyghur population is disputed between Chinese authorities and Uyghur organizations outside of China. The § Population section of this article further discusses this dispute.
  2. ^
    .
  3. ^ a b The term Turk was a generic label used by members of many ethnicities in Soviet Central Asia. Often the deciding factor for classifying individuals belonging to Turkic nationalities in the Soviet censuses was less what the people called themselves by nationality than what language they claimed as their native tongue. Thus, people who called themselves "Turk" but spoke Uzbek were classified in Soviet censuses as Uzbek by nationality.[62]
  4. ^ This contrasts to the Hui people, called Huihui or "Hui" (Muslim) by the Chinese and the Salar people, called "Sala Hui" (Salar Muslims) by the Chinese. Use of the term "Chan Tou Hui" was considered a demeaning slur.[103]
  5. ^ "Soon the great chief Julumohe and the Kirghiz gathered a hundred thousand riders to attack the Uyghur city; they killed the Kaghan, executed Jueluowu, and burnt the royal camp. All the tribes were scattered – its ministers Sazhi and Pang Tele with fifteen clans fled to the Karluks, the remaining multitude went to Tibet and Anxi." (Chinese: 俄而渠長句錄莫賀與黠戛斯合騎十萬攻回鶻城,殺可汗,誅掘羅勿,焚其牙,諸部潰其相馺職與厖特勒十五部奔葛邏祿,殘眾入吐蕃、安西。)[184]

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Geographic Distribution and Population of Ethnic Minorities". China Statistical Yearbook 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  2. ^ Kazakhstan population by ethnic groups
  3. ^ "Чей Кашмир? Индусов,Пакистацев или уйгуров?". Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  4. ^ "About The Uyghurs". East Turkistan Government in Exile. 4 March 2021. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  5. ^ "Национальная самобытность: О жизни уйгуров в Кыргызстане". Moskovskij Komsomolets (in Russian). 14 April 2021.
  6. ^ "Uyghur". Ethnologue. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
  7. ^ "Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2009–2013". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  8. ^ Hawkins, Samantha (18 March 2021). "Uighur Rally Puts Genocide in Focus Ahead of US-China Talks". Courthouse News. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  9. ^ "Uyghurs in Saudia Arabia".
  10. ^ "Uighur abuse: Australia urged to impose sanctions on China". www.sbs.com.au. Archived from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
  11. ^ "Перепись населения России 2010 года" [Russian census 2010]. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  12. ^ Kumar, Kumar (18 December 2016). "For Uighur exiles, Kashmir is heaven". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  13. ^ Uyghur (in Russian). Historyland. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  14. ^ Gunter, Joel (27 August 2021). "Afghanistan's Uyghurs fear the Taliban, and now China too". BBC News. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  15. ^ "ウイグル族 訪れぬ平安 ... 日本暮らしでも「中国の影」". 読売新聞オンライン (in Japanese). 6 November 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  16. ^ Lintner, Bertil (31 October 2019). "Where the Uighurs are free to be". Asia Times. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
  17. ^ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics (8 February 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census – Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 28 April 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Shichor, Yitzhak (July 2013). "Nuisance Value: Uyghur activism in Germany and Beijing–Berlin relations". Journal of Contemporary China. 22 (82): 612–629. doi:10.1080/10670564.2013.766383. S2CID 145666712.
  19. ^ "Language according to age and sex by region, 1990-2021". stat.fi. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  20. ^ "Khovd Aimak Statistical Office. 1983–2008 Dynamics Data Sheet". Archived from the original on 22 July 2011.
  21. ^ State statistics committee of Ukraine – National composition of population, 2001 census Archived 8 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine (Ukrainian)
  22. ^ Touraj Atabaki, Sanjyot Mehendale (2004). Central Asia and the Caucasus: Transnationalism and Diaspora. p. 31. The Uighurs, too, are Turkic Muslims, linguistically and culturally more closely related to the Uzbeks than the Kazakhs.
  23. ^ a b Hahn 2006, p. 4.
  24. ^ a b Drompp 2005, p. 7.
  25. ^ a b "Uighur". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  26. ^ "Uighur". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  27. ^ "Uighur | History, Language, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  28. ^ "The mystery of China's celtic mummies". The Independent. London. 28 August 2006. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
  29. ^ Dillon 2004, p. 24.
  30. ^ a b c "Ethnic Uygurs in Hunan Live in Harmony with Han Chinese". People's Daily. 29 December 2000. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  31. ^ "Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uyghur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  32. ^ Castets, Rémi (1 October 2003). "The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – The Malaise Grows". China Perspectives (in French). 2003 (5). doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.648. ISSN 2070-3449. "The rest of the Diaspora is settled in Turkey (about 10,000 people) and, in smaller numbers, in Germany, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Canada, the US, India and Pakistan."
  33. ^ Brouwer, Joseph (30 September 2020). "Xi Defends Xinjiang Policy as "Entirely Correct"". China Digital Times.
  34. ^ Davidson, Helen (18 September 2020). "Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps". The Guardian.
  35. ^ "China: Unrelenting Crimes Against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs | Human Rights Watch". 31 August 2023.
  36. ^ Vanderklippe, Nathan (9 March 2011). "Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs". The Globe and Mail.
  37. ^ Falconer, Rebecca (9 March 2021). "Report: "Clear evidence" China is committing genocide against Uyghurs". Axios.
  38. ^ Chase, Steven (24 January 2021). "Canada urged to formally label China's Uyghur persecution as genocide". The Globe and Mail.
  39. ^ Brouwer, Joseph (25 June 2021). "China Uses Global Influence Campaign To Deny Forced Labor, Mass Incarceration in Xinjiang". China Digital Times.
  40. ^ Cheng, Yangyang (10 December 2020). "The edge of our existence". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 76 (6): 315–320. Bibcode:2020BuAtS..76f.315C. doi:10.1080/00963402.2020.1846417. S2CID 228097031.
  41. ^ Raza, Zainab (24 October 2019). "China's 'Political Re-Education of Uyghur Muslims'". Asian Affairs. 50 (4): 488–501. doi:10.1080/03068374.2019.1672433. S2CID 210448190.
  42. ^ Parton, Charles (11 February 2020). "Foresight 2020: The Challenges Facing China". The RUSI Journal. 165 (2): 10–24. doi:10.1080/03071847.2020.1723284. S2CID 213331666.
  43. ^ van Ess, Margaretha A.; ter Laan, Nina; Meinema, Erik (5 April 2021). "Beyond 'radical' versus 'moderate'? New perspectives on the politics of moderation in Muslim majority and Muslim minority settings". Religion. 51 (2). Utrecht University: 161–168. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2021.1865616.
  44. ^ McCormick, Andrew (16 June 2021). "Uyghurs outside China are traumatized. Now they're starting to talk about it". MIT Technology Review.
  45. ^ Mair, Victor (13 July 2009). "A Little Primer of Xinjiang Proper Nouns". Language Log. Archived from the original on 18 July 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
  46. ^ a b Fairbank & Chʻen 1968, p. 364.
  47. ^ a b Özoğlu 2004, p. 16.
  48. ^ The Terminology Normalization Committee for Ethnic Languages of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (11 October 2006). "Recommendation for English transcription of the word 'ئۇيغۇر'/《维吾尔》". Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
  49. ^ a b c d "Uighur, n. and adj.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
  50. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). "Uyghur". Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
  51. ^ "How to say: Chinese names and ethnic groups". BBC. 9 July 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
  52. ^ Wells, John C. (2008). "Uighur". Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
  53. ^ Russell-Smith 2005, p. 33.
  54. ^ Sudzi inscription, text at Türik Bitig
  55. ^ Mackerras 1968, p. 224.
  56. ^ Güzel 2002.
  57. ^ a b c Golden 1992, p. 155.
  58. ^ Jiu Wudaishi, "vol. 138: Huihu" quote: "回鶻,其先匈奴之種也。後魏時,號爲鐵勒,亦名回紇。唐元和四年,本國可汗遣使上言,改爲回鶻,義取旋搏擊,如之迅捷也。" translation: "Huihu, their ancestors had been a kind of Xiongnu. In Later Wei time, they were also called Tiele, and also named Huihe. In the fourth year of Tang dynasty's Yuanhe era [809 CE], their country's Qaghan sent envoys and requested [the name be] changed to Huihu, whose meaning is taken from a strike-and-return action, like a swift and rapid falcon."
  59. ^ Hakan Özoğlu, p. 16.
  60. ^ Russell-Smith 2005, p. 32.
  61. ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), The Languages of China, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 185–6
  62. ^ Silver, Brian D. (1986), "The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses", in Ralph S. Clem (ed.), Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp. 70–97
  63. ^ Weishu "vol. 103 section Gāochē" text: 高車,蓋古赤狄之餘種也,初號為狄歷,北方以為勑勒,諸夏以為高車、丁零。其語略與匈奴同而時有小異,或云其先匈奴之甥也。其種有狄氏、袁紇氏、斛律氏、解批氏、護骨氏、異奇斤氏。 transl. "Gaoche, probably remnant stocks of the ancient Red Di. Initially they had been called Dili, in the North they are considered Chile, the various Xia (i.e. Chinese) consider them Gaoche Dingling / Dingling with High-Carts. Their language and the Xiongnu's are similar though there are small differences. Or one may say they were sons-in-law / sororal nephews of their Xiongnu predecessors. Their tribes are Di, Yuanhe, Hulu, Jiepi, Hugu, Yiqijin."
  64. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. (2012) "Huihe 回紇, Huihu 回鶻, Weiwur 維吾爾, Uyghurs" ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  65. ^ Mair 2006, pp. 137–8.
  66. ^ Rong, Xinjiang. (2018) "Sogdian Merchants and Sogdian Culture on the Silk Road" in Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, Ca. 250–750 ed. Di Cosmo & Maas. p. 92 of 84–95
  67. ^ Hong, Sun-Kee; Wu, Jianguo; Kim, Jae-Eun; Nakagoshi, Nobukazu (25 December 2010). Landscape Ecology in Asian Cultures. Springer. p. 284. ISBN 978-4-431-87799-8. p.284: "The Uyghurs mixed with the Tocharian people and adopted their religion and their culture of oasis agriculture (Scharlipp 1992; Soucek 2000)."
  68. ^ Li, Hui; Cho, Kelly; Kidd, Judith R.; Kidd, Kenneth K. (December 2009). "Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and "Admixture" in Uyghurs". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (6): 934–937. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024. PMC 2790568. PMID 20004770. Historical records indicate that the present Uyghurs were formed by admixture between Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs (Wugusi-Huihu, according to present Chinese pronunciation) from the east in the 8th century CE
  69. ^ a b c d e James A. Millward & Peter C. Perdue (2004). "Chapter 2: Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  70. ^ Wong, Edward (19 November 2008). "The Dead Tell a Tale China Doesn't Care to Listen To". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016.
  71. ^ Zhang 2021, "Using qpAdm, we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups: the ANE, represented by an Upper Palaeolithic individual from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisei River region of Siberia (AG3) (about 72%), and ancient Northeast Asians, represented by Baikal_EBA (about 28%) (Supplementary Data 1E and Fig. 3a). Tarim_EMBA2 from Beifang can also be modelled as a mixture of Tarim_EMBA1 (about 89%) and Baikal_EBA (about 11%).".
  72. ^ Nägele, Kathrin; Rivollat, Maite; Yu, He; Wang, Ke (2022). "Ancient genomic research – From broad strokes to nuanced reconstructions of the past". Journal of Anthropological Sciences. 100 (100): 193–230. doi:10.4436/jass.10017. PMID 36576953. Combining genomic and proteomic evidence, researchers revealed that these earliest residents in the Tarim Basin carried genetic ancestry inherited from local Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, carried no steppe-related ancestry, but consumed milk products, indicating communications of persistence practices independent from genetic exchange.
  73. ^ Zhang 2021.
  74. ^ Zhang 2021, "Our results do not support previous hypotheses for the origin of the Tarim mummies, who were argued to be Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists descended from the Afanasievo, or to have originated among the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex or Inner Asian Mountain Corridor cultures. Instead, although Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants during the Early Bronze Age, we find that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert.".
  75. ^ Lattimore (1973), p. 237.
  76. ^ Edward Balfour (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures (3rd ed.). London: B. Quaritch. p. 952. Retrieved 28 June 2010. (Original from Harvard University)
  77. ^ a b c d e f Linda Benson (1990). The Ili Rebellion: the Moslem challenge to Chinese authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949. M.E. Sharpe. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-87332-509-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  78. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur (Illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 50. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  79. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 93–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  80. ^ a b Brophy, David (2005). "Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the 'uyghur Question' in Soviet Central Asia". Inner Asia. 7 (2). BRILL: 170. doi:10.1163/146481705793646892. JSTOR 23615693.
  81. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  82. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  83. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archive. pp. 307–. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  84. ^ Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10787-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  85. ^ a b Ho-dong Kim (2004). Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8047-4884-1. Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  86. ^ Brophy, David (2005). "Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the 'uyghur Question' in Soviet Central Asia". Inner Asia. 7 (2). BRILL: 166. doi:10.1163/146481705793646892. JSTOR 23615693.
  87. ^ Mir, Shabbir (21 May 2015). "Displaced dreams: Uighur families have no place to call home in G-B". The Express Tribune. GILGIT. Archived from the original on 22 May 2015.
  88. ^ Ho-dong Kim (2004). war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8047-4884-1. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  89. ^ Millward 2007, p. 93.
  90. ^ a b Thum, Rian (August 2012). "Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism". The Journal of Asian Studies. 71 (3): 627–653. doi:10.1017/S0021911812000629. S2CID 162917965.
  91. ^ Rian Thum (13 October 2014). The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History. Harvard University Press. pp. 149–. ISBN 978-0-674-96702-1. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  92. ^ Newby, L. J. (2005). The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand c.1760–1860. Brill's Inner Asian Library. Vol. 16 (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 2. ISBN 978-9004145504. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  93. ^ a b Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  94. ^ Brophy, David (2005). "Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the 'uyghur Question' in Soviet Central Asia (Inner Asia 7 (2))". Inner Asia. 7 (2). BRILL: 163–84.: 169–170. doi:10.1163/146481705793646892. JSTOR 23615693.
  95. ^ a b Millward 2007, p. 208
  96. ^ Arienne M. Dwyer; East-West Center Washington (2005). The Xinjiang conflict: Uyghur identity, language policy, and political discourse (PDF) (illustrated ed.). East-West Center Washington. p. 75, note 26. ISBN 978-1-932728-28-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2010. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  97. ^ Edward Allworth (1990). The modern Uzbeks: from the fourteenth century to the present : a cultural history (illustrated ed.). Hoover Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-8179-8732-9. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  98. ^ Akiner (28 October 2013). Cultural Change & Continuity In. Routledge. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-1-136-15034-0. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  99. ^ Linda Benson (1990). The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944-1949. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-0-87332-509-7. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  100. ^ Suisheng Zhao (2004). A nation-state by construction: dynamics of modern Chinese nationalism (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-8047-5001-1. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
  101. ^ Murray A. Rubinstein (1994). The Other Taiwan: 1945 to the present. M.E. Sharpe. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-56324-193-2. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  102. ^ American Asiatic Association (1940). Asia: journal of the American Asiatic Association, Volume 40. Asia Pub. Co. p. 660. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
  103. ^ Garnaut, Anthony (2008), "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (PDF), Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University, p. 95, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012
  104. ^ Simon Shen (2007). China and antiterrorism. Nova Publishers. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-60021-344-1. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  105. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900-1949. BRILL. pp. 154–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  106. ^ Wei, C. X. George; Liu, Xiaoyuan (29 June 2002). Exploring Nationalisms of China: Themes and Conflicts. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313315121. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015 – via Google Books.
  107. ^ Millward 2007, p. 209.
  108. ^ Linda Benson (1990). The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-0-87332-509-7. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  109. ^ Gladney, Dru (2004). Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. C. Hurst. p. 195.
  110. ^ Harris, Rachel (2004). Singing the Village: Music, Memory, and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang. Oxford University Press. pp. 53, 216.
  111. ^ J. Todd Reed; Diana Raschke (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. ABC-CLIO. pp. 7–. ISBN 978-0-313-36540-9.
  112. ^ Benjamin S. Levey (2006). Education in Xinjiang, 1884-1928. Indiana University. p. 12. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  113. ^ Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson; Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road. Columbia University Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-231-10786-0. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  114. ^ Dru C. Gladney (2005). Pál Nyíri; Joana Breidenbach (eds.). China inside out: contemporary Chinese nationalism and transnationalism (illustrated ed.). Central European University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-963-7326-14-1. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  115. ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 185–6.
  116. ^ Joscelyn, Thomas (21 April 2009). "The Uighurs, in their words". FDD's Long War Journal. Archived from the original on 22 October 2015.
  117. ^ Balci, Bayram (1 January 2007). "Central Asian refugees in Saudi Arabia: religious evolution and contributing to the reislamization of their motherland". Refugee Survey Quarterly. 26 (2). Oxford University Press: 12–21. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdi0223.
  118. ^ Balci, Bayram (Winter 2004). "The Role of the Pilgrimage in Relations between Uzbekistan and the Uzbek Community of Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Central Eurasian Studies Review. 3 (1): 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  119. ^ Ingvar Svanberg (1988). The Altaic-speakers of China: numbers and distribution. Centre for Mult[i]ethnic Research, Uppsala University, Faculty of Arts. p. 7. ISBN 91-86624-20-2. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  120. ^ Chih-yu Shih, Zhiyu Shi (2002). Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state. Psychology Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-415-28372-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  121. ^ 3–8 主要年份分民族人口数 [3–8 Population by ethnic group in major years]. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018.
  122. ^ Gladney, Dru C. (5 May 2003). "China's Minorities: the Case of Xinjiang and the Uyghur People" (PDF). Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Working Group on Minorities: Ninth session. United Nations Commission on Human Rights. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020. Some Uyghur groups claim that there are upwards of 20 million Uyghur in China, and nearly 50 million Muslims, with little evidence to support those figures.
  123. ^ van der Made, Jan (7 December 2016). "Uighurs slam Chinese 'occupation' at Paris congress". Radio France Internationale. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2020. Currently some 20 million Uighurs live in the western Chinese Xinjiang region.
  124. ^ "About Uyghurs". Uyghur American Association. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020. According to the latest Chinese census, there are about 12 million Uyghurs. However, Uyghur sources indicate that Uyghur population in East Turkistan is about 20 – 30 million.
  125. ^ Mijit, Fatima; Ablimit, Tangnur; Abduxkur, Guzalnur; Abliz, Guzalnur (November 2015). "Distribution of human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes detected by routine pap smear in uyghur-muslim women from Karasay Township Hotan (Xinjiang, China)". Journal of Medical Virology. 87 (11): 1960–1965. doi:10.1002/jmv.24240. PMC 5033003. PMID 26081269. The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, located in western China, has a population of 20 million Uyghur (the main ethnic group).
  126. ^ "EAST TURKISTAN". World Uyghur Congress. 29 September 2016. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020. Uyghur sources put the real population of Uyghurs around 20 million."
  127. ^ Zuberi, Hena (18 June 2015). "Uyghurs in China: We Buried the Quran in Our Backyards". Muslim Matters. Archived from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020. "There are 35 million of us," he says, some in exile, others in the land of what is known to the world as the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. This number is hotly contested and rejected by the Chinese government's official census.
  128. ^ Hudayar, Salim (13 February 2017). "Contemporary Colonialism: the Uyghurs Versus China". Intercontinental Cry. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020. 'According to some Uyghur activists, the Uyghurs number around 35 million, however official Chinese statistics put them around 12 million, a far cry from what the indigenous Uyghurs claim.' 'Analyzing historical data from Russian, Turkish, Chinese, and Uyghur sources, Turkish historian Professor Dr. Mehmet Saray expressed in his book Doğu Türkistan Türkleri Tarihi [The History of Eastern Turkistan's Turks] that the Uyghurs numbered roughly 24 million within East Turkistan as of 2010.'
  129. ^ Gladney, Dru C. (2004). "The Chinese Program of Development and Control, 1978-2001". In Starr, S. Frederick (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. Taylor & Francis. p. 113. ISBN 978-0765613189. Retrieved 5 July 2020. Some Uyghur groups go so far as to claim, albeit with scant evidence, that China's population today includes upwards of 20 million Uyghurs...
  130. ^ 乌鲁木齐市党史地方志编纂委员会 [Party's History and Annals Codification Committee of Ürümqi City], ed. (1994). 乌鲁木齐市志 第一卷 [Annals of Ürümqi City, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 231–232. ISBN 7-228-03205-5.
  131. ^ 克拉玛依市地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Karamay], ed. (1998). 克拉玛依市志 [Karamay Annals] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. p. 87. ISBN 7-228-04592-0.
  132. ^ 吐鲁番地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Turpan Prefecture], ed. (2004). 吐鲁番地区志 [Annals of Turpan Prefecture] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 132–133. ISBN 7-228-09218-X.
  133. ^ 哈密地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Hami Prefecture], ed. (1997). 哈密地区志 [Annals of Hami Prefecture] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang University Publishing House. p. 158. ISBN 7-5631-0926-9.
  134. ^ 昌吉回族自治州地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture], ed. (2002). 昌吉回族自治州志 上册 [Annals of Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 198–200. ISBN 7-228-07672-9.
  135. ^ 博尔塔拉蒙古自治州地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture], ed. (1999). 博尔塔拉蒙古自治州志 [Annals of Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang University Publishing House. pp. 137–138. ISBN 7-5631-1018-6.
  136. ^ 巴音郭楞蒙古自治州地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture], ed. (1994). 巴音郭楞蒙古自治州志 上册 [Annals of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Beijing: Contemporary China Publishing House. pp. 241–242. ISBN 7-80092-260-X.
  137. ^ 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州史志办公室 [Annals Codification Committee of Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture], ed. (2004). 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州志 上册 [Annals of Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 261–263. ISBN 7-228-08891-3.
  138. ^ 阿克苏地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Aksu Prefecture], ed. (2008). 阿克苏地区志 卷一 [Annals of Aksu Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 289–291. ISBN 978-7-228-10775-9.
  139. ^ 喀什地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Kashgar Prefecture], ed. (2004). 喀什地区志 上册 [Annals of Kashgar Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 203–204. ISBN 7-228-08818-2.
  140. ^ 和田地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Hotan Prefecture], ed. (2011). 和田地区志 上册 [Annals of Hotan Prefecture, Volume 1] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-228-13255-3.
  141. ^ 塔城地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Tacheng Prefecture], ed. (1997). 塔城地区志 [Annals of Tacheng Prefecture] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. p. 154. ISBN 7-228-03947-5.
  142. ^ 阿勒泰地区地方志编纂委员会 [Annals Codification Committee of Altay Prefecture], ed. (2004). 阿勒泰地区志 [Annals of Altay Prefecture] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. p. 158. ISBN 7-228-08710-0.
  143. ^ 新疆维吾尔自治区人口普查办公室 [Office for the Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region], ed. (2002). 新疆维吾尔自治区2000年人口普查资料 [Tabulation on the 2000 Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region] (in Chinese). Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing House. pp. 46–50. ISBN 7-228-07554-4.
  144. ^ 新疆维吾尔自治区人民政府人口普查领导小组办公室 [Office for the Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region], ed. (2012). 新疆维吾尔自治区2010年人口普查资料 [Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistics Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-7-5037-6516-2.
  145. ^ Yao YG, Kong QP, Wang CY, Zhu CL, Zhang YP (December 2004). "Different matrilineal contributions to genetic structure of ethnic groups in the silk road region in China". Mol Biol Evol. 21 (12): 2265–80. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh238. PMID 15317881.
  146. ^ a b Xu, Shuhua; Jin, Li (12 September 2008). "A Genome-wide Analysis of Admixture in Uyghurs and a High-Density Admixture Map for Disease-Gene Discovery". American Journal of Human Genetics. 83 (3): 322–336. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.08.001. PMC 2556439. PMID 18760393.
  147. ^ Xue, Yali; Zerjal, Tatiana; Bao, Weidong; Zhu, Suling; Shu, Qunfang; Xu, Jiujin; Du, Ruofu; Fu, Songbin; Li, Pu; Hurles, Matthew E.; Yang, Huanming; Tyler-Smith, Chris (April 2006). "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times". Genetics. 172 (4): 2431–2439. doi:10.1534/genetics.105.054270. PMC 1456369. PMID 16489223.
  148. ^ Xu S, Huang W, Qian J, Jin L (April 2008). "Analysis of genomic admixture in Uyghur and its implication in mapping strategy". American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (4): 883–94. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.01.017. PMC 2427216. PMID 18355773.
  149. ^ Shuhua Xu & Li Jin (September 2008). "A Genome-wide Analysis of Admixture in Uyghurs and a High-Density Admixture Map for Disease-Gene Discovery". Am J Hum Genet. 83 (3): 322–36. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.08.001. PMC 2556439. PMID 18760393.
  150. ^ Li, H; Cho, K; Kidd, JR; Kidd, KK (2009). "Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and "Admixture" in Uyghurs". American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (6): 934–7, author reply 937–9. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024. PMC 2790568. PMID 20004770.
  151. ^ Li, Hui; Cho, Kelly; Kidd, J.; Kidd, K. (2009). "Genetic landscape of Eurasia and "admixture" in Uyghurs". American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (6): 934–937. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024. PMC 2790568. PMID 20004770. S2CID 37591388.
  152. ^ Ablimit, Abdurahman; Qin, Wenbei; Shan, Wenjuan; Wu, Weiwei; Ling, Fengjun; Ling, Kaitelynn H.; Zhao, Changjie; Zhang, Fuchun; Ma, Zhenghai (9 October 2013). "Genetic diversities of cytochrome B in Xinjiang Uyghur unveiled its origin and migration history". BMC Genetics. 14 (1): 100. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-14-100. ISSN 1471-2156. PMC 3852047. PMID 24103151. Xinjiang Uyghurs are more genetically related to Chinese population in genetics than to Caucasians. Moreover, there was genetic diversity between Uyghurs from the southern and northern regions.
  153. ^ Bian, Yingnan; Zhang, Suhua; Zhou, Wei; Zhao, Qi; Siqintuya; Zhu, Ruxin; Wang, Zheng; Gao, Yuzhen; Hong, Jie; Lu, Daru; Li, Chengtao (4 February 2016). "Analysis of genetic admixture in Uyghur using the 26 Y-STR loci system". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 19998. Bibcode:2016NatSR...619998B. doi:10.1038/srep19998. PMC 4740765. PMID 26842947.
  154. ^ Qidi Feng; Yan Lu; Xumin Ni; et al. (October 2017). "Genetic History of Xinjiang's Uyghurs Suggests Bronze Age Multiple-Way Contacts in Eurasia". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (10): 2572–2582. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx177. PMID 28595347.
  155. ^ He, Guanglin; Wang, Zheng; Wang, Mengge; Luo, Tao; Liu, Jing; Zhou, You; Gao, Bo; Hou, Yiping (November 2018). "Forensic ancestry analysis in two Chinese minority populations using massively parallel sequencing of 165 ancestry-informative SNPs". Electrophoresis. 39 (21): 2732–2742. doi:10.1002/elps.201800019. ISSN 1522-2683. PMID 29869338. S2CID 46935911. Comprehensive population comparisons and admixture estimates demonstrated a predominantly higher European-related ancestry (36.30%) in Uyghurs than Huis (3.66%).
  156. ^ Gardner Bovingdon (2010). "Chapter 1 – Using the Past to Serve the Present". The Uyghurs – strangers in their own land. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14758-3.
  157. ^ a b Nabijan Tursun. "The Formation of Modern Uyghur Historiography and Competing Perspectives toward Uyghur History". The China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 6 (3): 87–100. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013.
  158. ^ "Brief History of East Turkestan". World Uyghur Congress. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016.
  159. ^ Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China (2004). "History and Development of Xinjiang". Chinese Journal of International Law. 3 (2): 629–659. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.cjilaw.a000538.
  160. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4.
  161. ^ Susan J. Henders (2006). Susan J. Henders (ed.). Democratization and Identity: Regimes and Ethnicity in East and Southeast Asia. Lexington Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-7391-0767-6. Retrieved 9 September 2011.
  162. ^ Reed, J. Todd; Raschke, Diana (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. ABC-CLIO. p. 7. ISBN 978-0313365409. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  163. ^ Millward 2007, p. 44.
  164. ^ Millward 2007, p. 14.
  165. ^ A. K Narain (March 1990). "Chapter 6 – Indo-Europeans in Inner Asia". In Denis Sinor (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
  166. ^ David W. Anthony, "Two IE phylogenies, three PIE migrations, and four kinds of steppe pastoralism", Journal of Language Relationship, vol. 9 (2013), pp. 1–22
  167. ^ Zhang, F; Ning, C; Scott, A; et al. (2021). "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies". Nature. 599 (7884): 256–261. Bibcode:2021Natur.599..256Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7. PMC 8580821. PMID 34707286.
  168. ^ Gardner Bovingdon (2004). "Chapter 14 – Contested histories". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang, China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe Incorporated. pp. 357–358. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
  169. ^ Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (3 March 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. 8: 14615. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814615U. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.
  170. ^ Millward 2007, pp. 13, 29.
  171. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 77–81.
  172. ^ Smith, Vincent A. (1999). The Early History of India. Atlantic Publishers. p. 193. ISBN 978-8171566181.
  173. ^ Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "T'ai-tsung (reign 624–49) the consolidator". In Twitchett, Denis (ed.). Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  174. ^ Mallory, J.P. (2015), "The problem of Tocharian origins: an archaeological perspective" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers (259): 273
  175. ^ a b Robbeets 2017, pp. 216–218.
  176. ^ Robbeets 2020.
  177. ^ Nelson et al. 2020.
  178. ^ Li et al. 2020.
  179. ^ Uchiyama et al. 2020.
  180. ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, pp. 4–5. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.
  181. ^ Lee & Kuang 2017, p. 197. "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations. The Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was not the product of migrations involving a homogeneous entity, but that of language diffusion."
  182. ^ Golden 1992, p. 157.
  183. ^ "Full Text of White Paper on History and Development of Xinjiang". en.people.cn. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
  184. ^ 新唐書/卷217下 – 維基文庫,自由的圖書館 [New Tang Book/Volume 217 – Wikisource, the free online library]. zh.wikisource.org (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 12 May 2013.[full citation needed]
  185. ^ Dust in the Wind: Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang's Western Pilgrimage. Rhythms Monthly. 2006. p. 480. ISBN 9789868141988.
  186. ^ a b c Millward 2007, p. 69
  187. ^ a b Golden, Peter. B. (1990), "The Karakhanids and Early Islam", in Sinor, Denis (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press, p. 357, ISBN 0-521-2-4304-1
  188. ^ "Uyghur History in Britanica". www.scribd.com. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  189. ^ Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Bernard Lewis; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1998). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. p. 677. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
  190. ^ "北京保利国际拍卖有限公司". www.polypm.com.cn.
  191. ^ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang. Rutgers University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0813535333.
  192. ^ Millward 2007, p. 101.
  193. ^ Newby, L. J. (1998). "The Begs of Xinjiang: Between Two Worlds". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 61 (2). Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies: 278–297. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00013811. JSTOR 3107653. S2CID 153718110.
  194. ^ Perdue 2009 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 285.
  195. ^ Tamm, Eric Enno (10 April 2011). The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China. Catapult. ISBN 9781582438764. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2020 – via Google Books.
  196. ^ ed. Starr 2004 Archived 12 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, p. 243.
  197. ^ Millward 1998 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 102.
  198. ^ Tyler 2004 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 4.
  199. ^ a b c Liu, Tao Tao; Faure, David (1996). Unity and Diversity; Local Cultures and Identity in China. University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-9622094024. Archived from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
  200. ^ Samuel Wells Williams (1848). The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants. Wiley and Putnam. p. 64. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
  201. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864. Stanford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 0804797927.
  202. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864. Stanford University Press. pp. 206–207. ISBN 0804797927.
  203. ^ Millward 2007, p. 108.
  204. ^ Millward 2007, p. 109.
  205. ^ 烏什庫車阿克蘇等城回目
  206. ^ 烏什庫車阿克蘇等處回人
  207. ^ 安西廳哈密回民
  208. ^ 伊犂塔勒奇察罕烏蘇等處回人
  209. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0804729338. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  210. ^ Kim, Hodong (2004). Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0804767231. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  211. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0804729338. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  212. ^ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang. Rutgers University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0813535333.
  213. ^ Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1-2. The White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge. 2002. p. 127. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  214. ^ Starr, S. Frederick (2015). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Taylor & Francis. p. 76. ISBN 9781317451372. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  215. ^ Ercilasun, Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva (November 2017). The Uyghur Community: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 41. ISBN 9781137522979. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  216. ^ a b Starr, S. Frederick (2015). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. United States: Taylor & Francis. p. 80. ISBN 9781317451372. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  217. ^ Starr, S. Frederick (2015). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Taylor & Francis. p. 81. ISBN 9781317451372. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  218. ^ Benson, Linda (1990). The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949. M.E. Sharpe. p. 265. ISBN 9780873325097. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  219. ^ Kamalov, Ablet (2010). Millward, James A.; Shinmen, Yasushi; Sugawara, Jun (eds.). Uyghur Memoir literature in Central Asia on Eastern Turkistan Republic (1944–49). Studies on Xinjiang Historical Sources in 17–20th Centuries. Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko. p. 260.
  220. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 197–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6.
  221. ^ Benson, Linda (1991). "Uygur Politicians of the 1940s: Mehmet Emin Bugra, Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Mesut Sabri∗". Central Asian Survey. 10 (4): 87. doi:10.1080/02634939108400758.
  222. ^ "The Soviet-Sponsored Uprising in Kuldja/The East Turkestan People's Republic" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  223. ^ Malhotra, Iqbal Chand (November 2020). Red Fear: The China Threat. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 356. ISBN 9789389867596. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  224. ^ Urban, Madison (16 October 2020). "21st Century Crimes Against Humanity: Oppression of the Uyghurs in China". Carolina Political Review. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  225. ^ Sanchez, Alejandro (30 December 2019). "Business as Usual with Beijing as Uyghurs Languish in "Education Camps"". Geopolitical Monitor. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  226. ^ "Second East Turkistan Republic (1944–1949)". East Turkistan Government in Exile. 4 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  227. ^ 中華人民共和國國家統計局 關於一九九○年人口普查主要數據的公報 (第三號). National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. 維吾爾族 7214 431人
  228. ^ 2000年人口普查中國民族人口資料 [2000 Population Census Chinese Ethnic Population Data] (in Simplified Chinese). 民族出版社. 2003. ISBN 978-7-105-05425-1.
  229. ^ a b Christofferson, Gaye (September 2002). "Constituting the Uyghur in U.S.-China Relations: The Geopolitics of Identity Formation in the War on Terrorism" (PDF). Strategic Insights. 1 (7). Center for Contemporary Conflict.
  230. ^ Gerry Shih (22 December 2017). "Uighur militants in Syria look to Zionism as model for their homeland". The Times of Israel. They looked to an improbable model for building an independent homeland: Israel and the Zionist movement. "We studied how the Jews built their country," Ali said.
  231. ^ Gerry Shih (22 December 2017). "AP Exclusive: Anger with China drives Uighurs to Syrian war". Associated Press. Retrieved 2 March 2024. A shopkeeper who prayed five times a day and then at night huddled with others in a ruined Syrian neighborhood to study Zionist history.
  232. ^ Hongmei, Li (7 July 2009). "Unveiled Rebiya Kadeer: a Uighur Dalai Lama". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
  233. ^ Enno, Tamm, Eric (2011). The horse that leaps through clouds: a tale of espionage, the Silk Road, and the rise of modern China. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint Press. pp. 194. ISBN 9781582437347. OCLC 663952959. Yet the Uyghurs have stubbornly resisted the Chinese Communist Party's ideological claims, Bovingdon writes, in 'an enduring struggle over history that is also a battle' over the future of their land and their own fate.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  234. ^ "As crackdown eases, China's Xinjiang faces long road to rehabilitation". The Washington Post. 23 September 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  235. ^ "One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel". Al Jazeera. 10 August 2018.
  236. ^ Welch, Dylan; Hui, Echo; Hutcheon, Stephen (24 November 2019). "The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang". ABC News (Australia).
  237. ^ "UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  238. ^ Waller, James; Albornoz, Mariana Salazar (2021). "Crime and No Punishment? China's Abuses Against the Uyghurs". Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. 22 (1): 100–111. doi:10.1353/gia.2021.0000. ISSN 2471-8831. S2CID 235855240.
  239. ^ Danilova, Maria (27 November 2018). "Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  240. ^ "China: Free Xinjiang 'Political Education' Detainees". Human Rights Watch. 10 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  241. ^ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (16 November 2019). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
  242. ^ "China Cables". ICIJ. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  243. ^ a b Buckley, Chris (8 September 2018). "China Is Detaining Muslims in Vast Numbers. The Goal: 'Transformation.'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
  244. ^ Turdush, Rukiye; Fiskesjö, Magnus (28 May 2021). "Dossier: Uyghur Women in China's Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 15 (1): 22–43. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.15.1.1834.
  245. ^ Sudworth, John (December 2020). "China's 'tainted' cotton". BBC News.
  246. ^ Congressional Research Service (18 June 2019). "Uyghurs in China" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  247. ^ "Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch". Reuters. 9 September 2018. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  248. ^ "Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China" (PDF). Bar Human Rights Committee. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  249. ^ a b "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Birth rates in the mostly Uighur regions of Hotan and Kashgar plunged by more than 60% from 2015 to 2018, the latest year available in government statistics. Across the Xinjiang region, birth rates continue to plummet, falling nearly 24% last year alone — compared to just 4.2% nationwide, statistics show.
  250. ^ "China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population". Voice of America. Associated Press. 29 June 2020.
  251. ^ Samuel, Sigal (10 March 2021). "China's genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts". Vox.
  252. ^ "China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population". Deutsche Welle. 1 July 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  253. ^ "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs". BBC News. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  254. ^ Kuo, Lily (16 October 2020). "Chinese detention 'leaving thousands of Uighur children without parents'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  255. ^ Adrian Zenz (July 2019). "Break Their Roots: Evidence for China's Parent-Child Separation Campaign in Xinjiang". The Journal of Political Risk. 7 (7).
  256. ^ ""Like we were enemies in a war"". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  257. ^ "Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) – China". The World Bank. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  258. ^ "Experts reject US allegations of genocide in Xinjiang, China". Pakistan Observer. 25 September 2021.
  259. ^ M. Irfan Ilmie; Tia Mutiasari (11 January 2021). "Populasi Uighur naik 25 persen, pemerintah Xinjiang bantu cek keluarga" [Uighur population up 25 percent, Xinjiang government helps check families]. Antara News (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 14 June 2021.
  260. ^ Basuki, Novi (20 December 2021). "Uighur dan Pemboikotan Olimpiade Beijing" [Uighurs and the Boycott of the Beijing Olympics]. Detik.com (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 20 July 2022. Pada 2018, misalnya, persentase kelahiran Uighur adalah 11,9‰, sedangkan Han cuma 9,42‰. Secara keseluruhan, total populasi Uighur di Xinjiang naik dari yang sekitar 8,346 juta pada 2000, ke 11,624 juta lebih pada 2020. Alias rata-rata naik 1,71% tiap tahunnya. Jauh lebih tinggi ketimbang populasi suku minoritas lain di seluruh China yang saban warsa hanya naik 0,83%.
  261. ^ Ramzy, Austin (1 September 2022). "For Uyghurs, U.N. Report on China's Abuses Is Long-Awaited Vindication". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  262. ^ "China: New UN Report Alleges Crimes Against Humanity". Human Rights Watch. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  263. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (19 January 2021). "U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  264. ^ Finley, Joanne (2020). "Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (3): 348–370. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109. S2CID 236962241.
  265. ^ Griffiths, James (17 April 2021). "From cover-up to propaganda blitz: China's attempts to control the narrative on Xinjiang". CNN.
  266. ^ Ingvar Svanberg (1988). The Altaic-speakers of China: numbers and distribution. Centre for Mult[i]ethnic Research, Uppsala University, Faculty of Arts. p. 7. ISBN 978-91-86624-20-0. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  267. ^ Kathryn M. Coughlin (2006). Muslim cultures today: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-313-32386-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  268. ^ Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson; Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road. Columbia University Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-231-10786-0. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  269. ^ Zhongguo cai zheng jing ji chu ban she (1988). New China's population. Macmillan. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-02-905471-0. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  270. ^ Yangbin Chen (2008). Muslim Uyghur students in a Chinese boarding school: social recapitalization as a response to ethnic integration. Lexington Books. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-7391-2112-2. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  271. ^ David Westerlund; Ingvar Svanberg (1999). Islam outside the Arab world. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-312-22691-6. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  272. ^ a b Chih-yu Shih, Zhiyu Shi (2002). Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state. Psychology Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-415-28372-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  273. ^ Moriyasu, Takao (13 October 2015). "New Developments in the History of East Uighur Manichaeism". Open Theology. -1 (open–issue). doi:10.1515/opth-2015-0016.
  274. ^ "A Review of Guanyin Faith" 回鶻觀音信仰考. tanghistory.net (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
  275. ^ 回鶻彌勒信仰考 (in Traditional Chinese). Ccbs.ntu.edu.tw. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  276. ^ Ben Westcott and Yong Xiong (22 July 2019). "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
  277. ^ "Uighur Buddhism". obo. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  278. ^ Starr, S. Frederick (2013). Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0691157733.
  279. ^ Stephen Uhalley; Xiaoxin Wu (4 March 2015). China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Routledge. pp. 274–. ISBN 978-1-317-47501-9.
  280. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 59–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2.
  281. ^ Edward Laird Mills (1938). Christian Advocate -: Pacific Edition . p. 986.
  282. ^ James A. Millward (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
  283. ^ "Nationality, religious beliefs and language skills in the Republic of Kazakhstan (Census 2009)" Қазақстан Республикасындағы ұлттық құрам, діни наным және тілдерді меңгеру. Republic of Kazakhstan Bureau of National Statistics. Astana. 2011. p. 329. Archived from the original on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
  284. ^ a b Palmer, David; Shive, Glenn; Wickeri, Philip (2011). Chinese Religious Life. Oxford University Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 9780199731381. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  285. ^ Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 153. ISBN 0-231-10787-0. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  286. ^ "China Uighurs: Xinjiang city of Urumqi to ban Islamic veil". BBC. 11 December 2014.
  287. ^ Graham E. Fuller & Jonathan N. Lipman (15 March 2004). "Chapter 13 – Islam in Xinjiang". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang, China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 331–332. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
  288. ^ a b Jacob, Andrew (2 January 2016). "Xinjiang Seethes Under Chinese Crackdown". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016.
  289. ^ Kuo, Lily (7 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  290. ^ Davidson, Helen (25 September 2020). "Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  291. ^ Skopeliti, Clea (25 September 2020). "China: Nearly two-thirds of Xinjiang mosques damaged or demolished, new report shows". The Independent. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  292. ^ Kuo, Kendrick (December 2012). "Revisiting the Salafi-jihadist Threat in Xinjiang". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 32 (4): 528–544. doi:10.1080/13602004.2012.744172. S2CID 143745128.
  293. ^ "Salafism in China and its Jihadist-Takfiri strains". 18 January 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
  294. ^ Gurcan, Metin (19 January 2015). "Oppressed by China, Uighurs drawn to Salafist ideas". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
  295. ^ Scott Cameron Levi; Ron Sela (2009). slamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources. Indiana University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0253353856. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  296. ^ Mehmet Fuat Köprülü; Gary Leiser; Robert Dankoff (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. Psychology Press. pp. 158–. ISBN 978-0-415-36686-1. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  297. ^ Edmund Herzig (30 November 2014). The Age of the Seljuqs. I.B.Tauris. pp. 23–. ISBN 978-1-78076-947-9. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  298. ^ "Uyghur" (PDF). Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region. Indiana University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2015.
  299. ^ Peter Neville-Hadley (1997). China the Silk Routes. Cadogan Guides. Globe Pequot Press. p. 304. ISBN 9781860110528. Travelling east from Khotan{...}Many Uighurs speak no Chinese at all, and most hotels are even less likely to have English speakers than those elsewhere in China.
  300. ^ 西域、 敦煌文獻所見回鵲之佛經翻譯 (PDF). hk.plm.org.cn (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved 28 July 2013.[dead link]
  301. ^ Rian Thum (13 October 2014). The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History. Harvard University Press. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-0-674-59855-3.
  302. ^ Robert Shaw (1878). A Sketch of the Turki Language: As Spoken in Eastern Turkistan ... pp. 102–109. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2016.Asiatic Society (Calcutta, India) (1877). Journal. pp. 325–347. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2016.Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. G.H. Rouse, Baptist Mission Press. 1877. pp. 325–347. Retrieved 26 July 2016.Robert Shaw (1875). A Sketch of the Túrkí Language as Spoken in Eastern Túrkistán (Káshgar & Yarkand) Together with a Collection of Extracts. Printed at the Central jail Press. pp. i–xxix.
  303. ^ C. A. Storey (February 2002). Persian Literature: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey. Psychology Press. pp. 1026–. ISBN 978-0-947593-38-4.
  304. ^ "Xinjiang Stories – Los Angeles Review of Books". 3 December 2014. Archived from the original on 6 April 2016.
  305. ^ Freeman, Joshua L. (13 August 2020). "Uighur Poets on Repression and Exile". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  306. ^ "UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention". Unesco.org. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  307. ^ "Kashgar Welcome You!". Kashi.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  308. ^ "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
  309. ^ Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2002). "Temperamental Neighbours: Uighur-Han Relations in Xinjiang, Northwest China". In Schlee, Günther (ed.). Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 66. The fact that many young girls hope to pursue careers as folk dancers is perhaps another indication that the stereotype promoted by the Chinese authorities of the colourful, exotic minorities who dance and sing is not a pure Chinese invention: the Uighur themselves regard this as an important expression of their identity.
  310. ^ a b Mehmud Abliz. "Uyghur Music". Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
  311. ^ "Brief Introduction of Uyghur Dances work – Uyghur Music Dance and Songs Online". Archived from the original on 3 February 2003.
  312. ^ "Bizaklik Thousand Buddha Caves". www.showcaves.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
  313. ^ a b Millward 2007, pp. 142–148
  314. ^ a b c d Linda Benson (15 March 2004). "Chapter 7 – Education and Social Mobility among Minority Populations in Xinjiang". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang, China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 190–215. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
  315. ^ S. Frederick Starr (15 March 2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-0-7656-3192-3. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  316. ^ Millward 2007, pp. 145–147.
  317. ^ Muhammad emin, Bughra (1941). East Turkestan history. Kabul. p. 155.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  318. ^ Rian Thum (13 October 2014). The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History. Harvard University Press. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-0-674-96702-1. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  319. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archive. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.
  320. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  321. ^ Ondřej Klimeš (8 January 2015). Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949. BRILL. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-90-04-28809-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  322. ^ William Clark (2011). "Ibrahim's story" (PDF). Asian Ethnicity. 12 (2): 203–219. doi:10.1080/14631369.2010.510877. S2CID 145009760. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2015.
  323. ^ "What Is a Uyghur?". Los Angeles Review of Books. 26 October 2014. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016.
  324. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4.
  325. ^ Jackie Amijo (2008). "Chapter 6 – Muslim Education in China". In Farish A. Noor; Yoginder Sikand; Martin van Bruinessen (eds.). The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 185–186. ISBN 9789053567104.
  326. ^ Kees Versteegh; Mushira Eid (2005). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed. Brill. pp. 383–. ISBN 978-90-04-14473-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  327. ^ ALLÈS & CHÉRIF-CHEBBI & HALFON 2003 Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 14.
  328. ^ Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations (August 2005). Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004. Government Printing Office. pp. 159–. ISBN 978-0-16-072552-4. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  329. ^ Anwei, Feng. English language education across greater China. p. 262.
  330. ^ Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 127–129. ISBN 0-231-10787-0. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  331. ^ Arienne M. Dwyer (2005). The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse (PDF). East-West Center Washington. pp. 34–41. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017.
  332. ^ Joanne Smith Finley; Xiaowei Zang, eds. (2015). Language, Education and Uyghur Identity in Urban Xinjiang. Routledge. pp. 158–159. ISBN 9781315726588.
  333. ^ "Tongue Tied". The Economist. 27 June 2015.
  334. ^ Grose, Timothy A. (March 2010). "The Xinjiang Class: Education, Integration, and the Uyghurs". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 30 (1): 97–109. doi:10.1080/13602001003650648. S2CID 38299716.
  335. ^ Joanne Smith Finley; Xiaowei Zang, eds. (2015). Language, Education and Uyghur Identity in Urban Xinjiang. Routledge. pp. 165–166. ISBN 9781315726588.
  336. ^ Ruth Hayhoe (1996). China's universities, 1895–1995: a century of cultural conflict. Taylor & Francis. p. 202. ISBN 0-8153-1859-6. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  337. ^ Justin Jon Rudelson; Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson (1997). Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road. Columbia University Press. pp. 84–. ISBN 978-0-231-10786-0.
  338. ^ Sykes & Sykes 1920 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 317-321.
  339. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 81–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
  340. ^ M Critina Cesàro (2007). "Chapter 10, Polo, läghmän, So Säy: Situating Uyghur Food Between Central Asia and China". Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 185–202. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  341. ^ "An unbelievably expensive piece of Xinjiang nut cake and what it tells about the ethnic policy in China". Offbeat China. 4 December 2012. Archived from the original on 15 September 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  342. ^ Austin Ramzy (5 December 2012). "Don't Let Them Eat Cake: How Ethnic Tensions in China Explode on the Streets". Time. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012.
  343. ^ Adam Taylor (4 December 2012). "Chinese Racial Tensions Flare Over An Overpriced Nut Cake". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016.
  344. ^ Friederich 2007 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, pp.91–92.
  345. ^ Ahmad Kamal (1 August 2000). Land Without Laughter. iUniverse. pp. 110–. ISBN 978-0-595-01005-9. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  346. ^ Ella Constance Sykes; Percy Molesworth Sykes (1920). Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia. Macmillan. p. 61. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  347. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 193–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
  348. ^ Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (January 2006). Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China. University of California Press. pp. 127–. ISBN 978-0-520-23015-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
  349. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
  350. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 397–. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
  351. ^ China. Eye Witness Travel Guides. p. 514.
  352. ^ 新疆的英吉沙小刀(組圖) (in Simplified Chinese). china.com.cn. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013.
  353. ^ "The Uyghur Nationality". Oriental Nationalities. Archived from the original on 20 May 2014.
  354. ^ شىنجاڭ دېھقانلار تورى (in Uyghur). Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  355. ^ 英吉沙小刀 (in Simplified Chinese). sinobuy.cn. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015.
  356. ^ Palmer, James (25 September 2013). "The Strangers: Blood and Fear in Xinjiang". China File. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016.
  357. ^ "Kunming attack further frays ties between Han and Uighurs". Today. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016.
  358. ^ Julie Makinen (17 September 2014). "For China's Uighurs, Knifings Taint An Ancient Craft". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016.
  359. ^ Winston, Robert; Wilson, Dr. Don E., eds. (2004). Human: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: Dorling Kindersley. p. 447. ISBN 0-7566-0520-2.
  360. ^ Zang, Xiaowei. (June 2010). "Affirmative Action, Economic Reforms, and Han-Uyghur Variation in Job Attainment in the State Sector in Urumchi". China Quarterly. 202 (202) (no. 2022010: 344–61. ed.): 344–361. doi:10.1017/S0305741010000275. JSTOR 20749382. S2CID 155040095.
  361. ^ Cao, Chunfang; Chan, Kam C.; Hou, Wenxuan; Jia, Fansheng (3 October 2019). "Does religion matter to informal finance? Evidence from trade credit in China" (PDF). Regional Studies. 53 (10). University of Edinburgh: 1410–1420. Bibcode:2019RegSt..53.1410C. doi:10.1080/00343404.2019.1575506. hdl:20.500.11820/004e1138-77cb-40a3-bf73-76caa787e700. S2CID 158546228.
  362. ^ Harlan, Tyler; Webber, Michael (June 2012). "New corporate Uyghur entrepreneurs in Urumqi, China". Central Asian Survey. 31 (2): 175–191. doi:10.1080/02634937.2012.671993. S2CID 143826394.
  363. ^ a b Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  364. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  365. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 117–. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.

General and cited sources

Attribution
  •  This article incorporates text from The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures, by Edward Balfour, a publication from 1885, now in the public domain in the United States.

Further reading